^ 

-s:^ 


XKL^carRcrsT  gil£brx. 


THE 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 


Br  JOHN  NICHOLSON,  Esq. 

OF  HERKIMER  COUN'TT,    STATE  OP  NEW-rORK. 


THB  SUBJECTS  ON  WHICH  THIS  WORK  TREATS,  ARE  NUMEROUS 
EMBRAnXG  EVERY  ARTICLE  RELATING  TO  AGRICULTURE 
ARRANGED  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ORDER. 


:'i 


ALBANY: 
PRINTED  BY  H.  C.  SOUTHWICK. 

No.  94,  State-Strut. 

1814. 


Uish-ict  of  Xew-Yorh^  ss. 

BK  it  remeiiiboreiJ,  that  on  the  seconcj  day  of  July,  in  the  thirty-eightb 
year  of  the  IiKlepciuIeiiceof  the  United  Slates  of  .Ameiicj,  H.  C.  Sovthwick, 
of  the  said  Distritt,  has  deposited  in  this  office  the  title  of  a  Book,  the  right 
whereof  he  claims  as  proprietor,  in  the  words  following,  to  wit : 

"  The  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT,  by  John  Nicholson.  Esq.  of  Herkimer 
CoJinty,  State  of  New-Vork. — The  subjects  on  which  this  work  treats,  are. 
numerous.... embracing  every  article  relating  to  Agriculture,  arranged  in  al- 
phabetical order." 

Is  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled 
"  An  act  for  the  enconraijement  of  Learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  Maps, 
Charts  and  Books  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  du  ing  the 
time  therein  mentioned."  .4nd  also  to  an  act.  entitled  *•  An  act  siipplemen- 
taiy  to  an  act,  entitled  "  An  act  for  thf>  enconngf  ment  of  Learning,  by  .se- 
cnrine  the  copies  of  Maps,  Charts  anri  Books  to  the  authors  and  proprietors 
of  such  ciipies,  dnri.ig  iju  times  therein  mentioned,  and  extending:  the  bene- 
fits thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraving  and  etching  historical  and  other 
prints." 

THERO^^  RUDD,  CI.  rk 
of  the  Southera  District  of  New-York 


INTRODUCTION. 


'T^HE  following  Work  is  offered  for  the  patronage  of  the  farmers 
and  planters  of  our  country.  It  is  particularly  calculated  tor  the 
northern  and  middle  states ;  but  as  husbandry  has  general  features 
of  similarity  in  all  countries,  it  is  nearly  equally  well  adapted  to 
those  states  which  lie  farther  to  the  south.  It  is  believed  to  con- 
tain a  summary  of  the  best  means  known  in  this  country  for  the 
farmer  to  conduct  his  business  to  advantage.  The  various  articles 
comprising  the  Work,  are  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  with 
])roper  references  to  each  other,  where  they  have  a  necessary  con- 
nexion. The  Work  is,  in  part,  an  abridgment  of  the  essays  of  others 
— and,  in  part,  it  is  original.  Acknowletlgaieuts  are  due  to  the 
gentlemen  whose  essays  have  been  published  by  "  the  society  for 
the  promotion  of  agriculture,"  «^"c.  and  that  "  lor  the  promotion  of 
useful  arts,"  in  this  state  ;  and,  in  most  instances,  the  authority  of 
their  names  has  been  made  use  of;  particularly  that  of  the  learned 
and  worthy  President  of  those  institutions,  whose  exertions  in  im- 
proving the  state  of  farming  amongst  us,  entitle  him  to  the  first  agri- 
cultural honors  of  the  state. 

Although,  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  Practical  Farming  may  be 
considered  as  nearly  reduced  to  a  science. ...yet,  in  this  country, 
from  inattention  to  this  important  subject,  (owing,  perhajis,  to  the 
ease  with  which  a  subsistence  is  acquired,  where  lands  are  plenty) 
the  means  of  making  the  most  of  the  labors  of  the  field  is,  in  sene- 
ral,  but  imperfectly  understood.  On  this  subject,  the  existing 
knowledge  in  other  countries,  even  if  brought  home,  would  not,  in 
all  respects,  be  knowledge  for  us.  A  difference  in  soils,  climates, 
and  the  production?  to  be  raised,  must  ever  be  productive  of  ditler- 
ences  in  the  best  modes  of  culture.  To  the  agricultural  geniuses  of 
our  own  country,  we  must,  therefore,  look  for  aid  in  maturing  the 
best  system  of  farming  here  ;  and,  no  doubt,  in  a  country  j)OJ-?fss- 
ing  such  varieties  of  climate  and  soil,  many  variations  will  be  found 
necessary. 

Some  Chemists  of  Great-Britain,  and  elsewhere,  have  gone  into 
the  analyzation  of  earths,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  constituent  parts 
of  those  which  are  fertile,  and  of  those  which  are  pterile  ^  and  thus. 


BECOMMENDATIOXS. 


Copy  oj  a  Utierfrom  Simeon  De  Witt,  Esq.  Surrcyor-Gerural  nf  the  tlair 
of  yen-York,  to  the  Publisher. 
Sis, 

Since  yon  put  ioio  my  hamli,  Mr.  Xichol«oii'<  manusciipt  on  hus- 
baodry,  entitled  "  Tht  Farmrrt  Assistant,^"  I  have   not  had  leisure  to 
ezamioe  it  critically,  and  to  compare  its  contents  with  «rliat  is  to  be  found 
in  the  rarious  author?  who  have  treated  on  the  same  or  similar  subjects. 
However,  after  the  perusal  I  have  given  it,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  recom- 
mending it  as  a  book  that  will  be  found  very  useful  to  the  practical  farmer. 
The  merit  of  sucb  works  depends  principally  on  a  judicious  selection  from 
what  has  been  said  by  the  standard  writers  on  such  subjects. ...from  what 
is  to  be  found  in  periodical  and  occasional  publication<: — together  with  the 
luiHTitten  information  collected  by  the  writers  themselves,  and  the  results 
of  their  own  observations,  arranged  so  as  best  to  accommodate  readers. 
In  all  these  respects,  I  believe  the  present  work  will  be  found  to  evince 
considerable  research  and  observation,  as  well  as  judgment  in  the  plan  of 
conducting  it.     It  certainly  contains  a  good  deal  of  useful  matter,  which  L< 
iKJt  to  be  found  embo^lied  in  any  one  book  on  husbandry.     Hi<;  gleanings 
from  various  publications,  are  considerable.. -.and  these,  together  with  his 
own  observations,  are  brought  together  in  such  a  manner  as  is  well  calcu- 
lated to  condense  the  information  intended  to  be  communicated.     The  ar- 
rangement of  his  topics  in  alphabetical  order,  will  f<ici]itate  that  recourse 
to  them,  for  which  the  farmer  will  have  frequent  occasion,  and  is,  there- 
fore, judiciously  adopted.    Considering  this  work  as  a  valuable  collection 
of  materials,  relating  to  rural  economy,  adapted  to  our  country,  I  Lhiuk  it 
deserving  of  that  patronage  which  Anaerican  productions  of  merit  ought  to 
receive  from  us,  and  hope  it  will  meet  with  that  encouragement  which  will 
enable  you  to  give  it  to  the  public. 

I  am,  sir,  respectfully  yourr, 

S.  DE  WITT. 


RECOMMENDATIONS.  vn 

Copy  of  a  letter  from  T.  Romeyn  Beck,  M.  D.  to  the  Publisher. 
Sir,  Albany,  March  23,  1814. 

I  have  examined,  at  your  request,  the  manuscript  copy  of  a 
work,  entitled  "  The  Farmer''s  Assistant,"  written  by  John  Nicholson, 
Esq.  The  very  slight  acquaintance  that  I  possess,  on  the  practical  part 
«f  the  subjects  treated  of  in  this  valume,  prevents  me  from  giting  a  de- 
termined opinion  on  its  merits.  I  can,  however,  add,  with  perfect  con- 
viction of  its  truth,  that  many  articles  are  written  with  correctness,  and 
convey  information  which  must  prove  useful.  A  laudable  degree  of  in- 
dustry appears  to  have  been  exercised  in  compiling  from  the  writings  of 
foreigners,  as  well  as  Americans,  whatever  may  be  important  to  the 
practical  farmer.  The  plan  adopted  by  the  author,  appears  better  calcu- 
lated for  the  class  of  citizens  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  than  any  other  that 
could  have  been  chosen.  A  consise,  yet  comprehensive  detail  on  each  of 
the  subjects  which,  in  succession,  call  for  the  attention  of  the  husband- 
man, is  one  that  best  comports  with  his  situation  and  his  leisure.  From 
being  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  the  facility  of  investigation  is  increa- 
sed, as  is  also  the  ease  of  reference  from  one  subject  to  another.  The  ne- 
cessity of  a  work  similar  to  the  "  Farmer's  Assistant,'  is  acknowledged 
by  most  practical  men,  and,  in  fact,  is  absolutely  indispensable,  in  order 
to  keep  pace  with  the  improvements  made  in  this  highly  important  branch 
of  industry.  The  agriculturalist  611s  an  interesting  situation  in  every  com- 
munity, and  particularly  so  in  the  United  States.  Patriotism,  as  well  aa 
every  social  feeling,  suggests  the  encouragement  of  this  most  useful,  and, 
in  most  cases,  virtuous  section  of  our  population.  To  render  the  labors  of 
the  farmer  more  productive,  and  to  increase  the  comforts  of  society,  Iq 
general,  appear  to  be  among  the  motives  of  this  work — and  it  is  siucerely 
hoped  that  such  exertions  may  meet  with  a  liberal  reward. 

T.  ROMEYN  BECK,  M.  D 
Mr.  H.  C.  Southwick. 


I  HAVE  perused  a  part  of  the  manuscript  above  mentioned,  iind  am 
of  opinion  that  the  work  will  be  highly  important  and  useful  to  Farmers, 
and  therefore  concur  in  recommending  it  to  their  patronage. 

DANIEL  D.  TOMPKINS, 
[Governor  of  the.  Sliate  of  AVw-ForA.j 
Albany,  Junt  18,  1814. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 


A. 


AIR.  Seeds  which  are  buried  so  deep  as  to  be  secluded  from  their 
requisite  proportionof  air  will  not  vegetate;  for  this  reason  weeds  are 
constantly  springing  up  in  new  ploughed  grounds  ;  those  seeds  which 
before  lay  too  deep  for  vegetation  being  turned  up  nigher  the  surface. 

Let  seeds  be  sown  in  the  glass  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  exhausted 
of  air,  and  they  will  not  vegetate  ;  but  admit  the  air  and  they  will 
grow  directly. 

The  lodging,  or  falling  of  some  kinds  of  grain  and  of  grass,  is  owing 
to  standing  too  thick  to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air,  by  means  of 
which  they  can  only  preserve  a  healthy  state.  Plant  one  grain  of 
wheat,  for  instance,  in  the  richest  soil,  and  the  stalks  when  grown, 
will  not  fall ;  but  plant  a  great  number  of  grains  in  the  same  soil,  so 
closely  together  as  to  preclude  a  free  circulation  of  air  amongst  the 
stalks,  and  they  become  unable  to  sustain  their  own  weight. 

Air  consists  of  diflferent  gases,  as  they  are  termed ;  the  oxygene  gas, 
or  vital  air,  which  is  essential  to  the  existence  of  all  animals;  the  Jiy- 
drosene  gas,  or  inflammable  air;  the  nitrogene  gas,  or  common  atmos- 
pheric air,  deprived  of  its  oxygen,  by  having  served  the  purposes  of 
respiration  or  combustion,  and  which  is  also  called  azote;  and  the 
carbonic  acid,  formerly  caWeA  jixed  air,  so  often  found  fatal  in  the  bot- 
toms of  wells  and  elsewhere.  These  are  the  principal;  but  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a  sufficient  degree  of  caloric,  (heat.)  all  liquid  substances 
can  be  changed  into  the  gaseous  state. 

The  common  atmosphere  is  principally  composed  of  the  oxygene 
and  nitrogene  gases,  being  about  twenty-one  parts  of  the  former  and 
seventy-nine  of  the  latter. 

As  the  oxygene  or  respirable  air  is  essential  to  the  existence  of  ani- 
mals, so  the  hydrogene  and  the  azote  is  absorbed  in  plants,  and  is  es- 
sential to  their  growth.  Plants  also,  while  exposed  to  the  light,  emit 
oxygene.     Thus,  by  the  economy  of  Nature,  the  vegetable  werld  is 


10  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

continually  absorbing  that  air  which  is  hurtful  to  man,  and  is  almost 
constantly  reproducing  that  which  is  healthful. 

SVf  further  article?,  Food  or  Plants,  GKRMiNAxroN  of  PlantS; 
Seeds,  Sowing,  &c. 

APPLES.  The  seeds  of  an  apple  seldom  produce  trees  which 
bear  the  same  kind  of  apples,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  grafting  or 
inoculating,  when  we  would  raise  the  same  kind. 

A  judicious  selection  of  trees  which  bear  the  best  apples  for  dififer- 
fnt  uses,  is  a  matter  worthy  of  particular  attention.. 
See  articles  Cidkr,  Orchard,  &c. 

For  gathering  apples  for  winter  use,  they  should  be  picked  from  the 
tree,  laid  carefully  in  a  heap,  under  cover,  without  being  bruised ; 
after  they  have  sneatctf,  let  them  be  exposed  to  the  air  and  well  dried, 
by  wiping  them  with  dry  cloths;  then  lay  them  away  in  a  di-y  place 
where  they  will  not  freeze.  The  lime  requisite  for  sweating  will  be 
six,  ten,  or  fifteen  days,  according  to  the  warmth  of  the  weather. 

Mr.  Forsyth  says,  that  "  the  most  com|)lete  method  of  saving  them> 
so  as  to  preserve  them  the  greatest  length  of  time,  is  to  wrap  them  in 
paper  and  pack  them  away  in  stone  jars  between  layers  of  bran;  hav- 
ing the  mouths  of  the  jars  covered  so  close  as  to  preclude  the  admission 
of  air,  and  then  to  keep  them  in  a  dry  place  where  they  will  not  be 
frozen. 

The  fruit  should  not  be  gathered  till  fully  ripe,  which  is  known  by 
the  stem  parting  easily  from  the  twig:  It  should  also  be  gathered  in 
dry  weather  and  when  the  dew  is  off. 

APPLE-TREE;  (Pyrus  Malus.)  This  tree  flourishes  most  in  a 
fertile  sandy  loam,  sandy,  or  rich,  warm,  gravelly  soil.  A  stiff  clay  js 
not  good,  even  though  it  be  rich.  It  thrives  better  in  a  i>oor  sandy 
soil  than  in  any  other  poor  earth. 

Some  apple-trees  bear  alternately  and  some  yearly.  The  cause  of 
the  former  is  owing  to  the  young  free  bearing  too  large  a  crop  at  first  ; 
this  so  exhausts  it  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  bearing  the  next  year;  in 
the  mean  time  it  becomes  sufficiently  recruited  for  a  heavy  crop  the 
third  year;  and  thus  it  becomes  confirmed  in  the  hahit  of  alternate 
bearing,  in  which  it  ever  after  continues.  In  order,  therefore,  to  pre- 
vent young  trees  from  getting  into  this  habit,  let  the  young  fruit  be 
8trip|)ed  off  where  it  ap|)ears  too  plentiful,  but  gradually,  less  and  less 
each  year,  until  such  time  as  the  tree  cau  hear  a  full  yearly  crop,  and 
thus  become  confirmed  in  the  habit  of  a  yearly  bearer.  Perhaps  a 
tree  that  has  become  confirmed  in  the  habit  of  alternate  bearing  might 
have  its  habit  changed  by  once  or  twice  divesting  it  of  its  young  fruit 
during  the  bearing  year,  and  manuring  it  well  during  that  season. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  11 

Take  a  scion  from  a  yearly,  and  graft  it  on  the  limb  of  an  alternate 
bearer,  and  it  will  become  alternate,  and  vice  versa.  But  if  the  true 
reason  has  been  given  for  alternate  bearing,  it  does  not  follow  that  a 
scion  from  a  yearly  bearer,  when  grafted  on  a  stofck  that  has  never 
borne,  will  become  alternate.  In  the  first  case,  the  h*bit  of  the  alter- 
nate bearer  being  already  confirmed,  regulates  the  scioo^  but  where 
ihe  habit  of  the  scion  has  become  confirmed  and  that  of  the  young 
«tock  has  not,  it  would  seem  that  the  habit  of  the  scion  mmt  prevail. 
It  is  said,  that  about  the  summer  solstice,  the  bark  of  the  body  of  an 
apple-tree  may  be  taken  off  and  a  new  hark  will  presently  form,  which 
will  regenerate  the  tree,  and  render  such  as  were  before  barren,  pro- 
ductive ;  but,  perhaps,  to  ensure  an  experiment  of  this  kind  it  w  ould  be 
well  to  give  the  part  of  the  tree  deprived  of  its  bark,  a  coat  of  For- 
syth's composition,  or  something  similar- 

5^c  further  articles;  Fruit-trees,  Orchard,  Nursery,  S:e. 

APRICOT.  The  same  culture  that  is  proper  for  a  peach-tree  is 
also  good  for  an  apricot,  with  this  difference,  that  apricots  require  a 
lighter  and  warmer  soil  than  a  peaeh-tree.     S^e  article  Peach-tree. 

ASH;  (Fraxinus.)  There  are  three  kinds  of  ash  in  this  country; 
the  Avhite,  the  yellow,  and  the  black.  The  upland  white-ash  is  the 
best  timber,  but  is  liable  to  a  white  rot  when  kept  too  much  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  Winter  is  the  best  lime  for  felling  it  to  preserve  the 
white  part  from  worms.  The  black-ash  is  the  most  durable  wood  for 
rails,  «fcc- 

ASHES.     See  article  ^Manures. 

ASPARAGUS.  To  make  a  bed  of  this  excellent  spring  green, 
■open  a  trench  four  or  five  feet  wide  and  one  foot  deep,  in  the  warmest 
part  of  your  garden — the  warmer  the  better.  Fill  the  trench  half  full 
of  good  barn  dung ;  level  it,  and  scatter  some  good  earth  over  it ;  then 
lay  on  your  roots,  eight  or  nine  inches  apart,  in  their  natural  position; 
or,  if  seeds  be  used,  about  half  that  distance  apart :  Fill  up  the  trench 
Avith  good  soil  and  your  bed  is  made. 

If  roots  be  planted,  they  may  be  cut  the  second  year;  but  if  seeds, 
not  till  the  third-  After  the  bed  is  fit  for  use,  all  the  shoots  which 
come  up  before  the  middle  of  June  may  be  cut  off;  but  all  after  that 
should  run  to  seed  to  strengthen  the  plants. 

As  this  plant  is  one  of  the  first  green  vegetables  Avhich  the  oppning 
season  presents,  and  as  no  substitute  equally  productive  can  be  had 
till  the  season  for  green  peas  and  beans,  which  usually  is  not  until 
some  time  in  summer,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  economy  to  have  two 
asparagus  beds ;  the  first  to  be  brought  forward  as  early  as  possible , 


12-  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  other  late.  For  this  purpose  the  latter  ought  to  have  a  northern 
exposure,  and  it  should  be  spaded  in  order  to  retard  its  growth  ;  by 
which  means  the  plants  will  be  equally  large  and  yet  rery  tender. 
The  roots  should  be  laid  so  deep  as  to  admit  of  spadius:  the  ground 
over  them.  The  beds  should  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  throughout  the 
season.  In  the  fall  they  should  have  a  layer  of  rotten  dung  spread 
over  them,  an  inch  in  depth,  which  may  in  part  l»e  taken  off  the  next 
spring ;  ami,  when  the  bed  becomes  too  high  by  the  constant  addition 
of  dung,  part  of  the  earth  may  be  pared  off  in  the  spring,  before  the 
plants  shoot,  and  the  bed  covered  again  with  a  thin  compost  of  rotten 
dung. 

ASS.  This  is  a  valuable  animal  for  carrying  burdens,  and  for  being 
used  in  small  carts.  Mr.  Liviugston  observes,  that  for  these  purposes 
they  are  much  used  in  the  country  between  Naniz  and  Paris;  and, 
that  even  loads  of  wood  and  hay  are  there  carried  on  their  backs. 
Their  use  for  many  purposes  in  this  country,  particularly  in  villages, 
would  be  found  an  article  of  economy ;  Ihey  will  subsist  on  the  coarse- 
est  fare ;  may  be  kept  at  constant  service ;  are  subject  to  few  or  no 
diseases;  and  they  live  to  a  great  age. 

It  is  also  mentioned  in  "  The  Complete  Gra::icr^^  that  asses  have 
been  successfully  used  in  Great-Britain  for  ploughing  light  lauds,  fonr 
of  them  being  equal  to  two  horses. 


B. 


BARLEY  ;  (Hordaim.)  This  is  a  hardy  c;rain,  subject  lo  lew  dis- 
eases; bears  the  drought  well  and  is  profitable  for  cultivation.  When 
hulled,  it  may  be  ground  into  flour,  which  makes  a  bread  whiter  than 
•wheat  and  but  little  inferior  in  taste.  Soups  made  of  il,  when  hulled, 
are  as  good  as  those  made  of  rice,  and  are  accounted  cooling  and  de- 
tersive in  fevers.  The  longer  this  grain  is  kept  the  better  tasted  it 
becomes;  the  cause  of  its  bad  taste  is  owing  to  its  hull.  The  usual 
allowance  of  seed  for  an  acre  is  two  bushels;  but  this  is  hardly  suffi- 
cient; in  general,  two  and  a  half  is  better.  Barley  has  frequently 
been  known  to  yield  sixty  bushels  an  acre.  It  requires  a  soil  iu  good 
condition,  and  like  many  other  crops,  tarns  to  poor  account  when 
gown  on  such  as  are  poor.  The  best  for  raising  it  are  the  loamy, 
sandy-loamy,  or  gravelly  soil    but  it  will  do  very  well  even  on  a  strong 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  13 

stiff  clay,  provided  it  be  well  mellowed  with  frequent  and  effectual 
plougbings  and  harrowings,  and  these  can  be  done  to  the  best  effect 
in  the  fall  preceding. 

As  barley  is  a  dry  husky  grain  and  requires  con«KlerabIe  moisture 
to  cause  it  to  vegetate,  it  should  be  sown  when  the  ground  is  sufficient- 
ly moist  :  It  should  also  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  well 
prepared  in  the  Spring.  This  grain  receives  essential  benefit  from 
being  soaked  in  lye,  brine,  or  some  other  fertiliziog  liquor.  An  Eng- 
lish writer  mentions  an  experiment  made  some  years  since  which  may 
be  worth  inserting.  "  The  last  Spring,"  says  he,  "  being  remarkably 
dry,  I  soaked  my  seed-barley  in  the  black  water  taken  from  a  reser- 
voir which  constantly  receives  the  draining  of  ray  dung-heap  and 
stables.  As  the  light  corn  floated  on  the  top  I  skimmed  it  off  and  let 
the  rest  stand  twenty-four  hours.  On  taking  it  from  the  water  I  mix- 
ed the  grain  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  wood  ashes,  to  make  it  spread 
regularly,  and  sowed  three  fields  "with  it-  The  protluce  was  sixty 
bushels  to  the  acre.  I  sowed  some  other  fields  with  the  same  seed, 
dry,  but  the  crop,  like  those  of  my  neighbors,  was  very  poor,  not  more 
than  twenty  bushels  an  acre,  and  much  mixed  with  weeds.  I  also 
sowed  some  of  my  seed  dry,  on  one  ridge,  in  each  of  mv  former  fields, 
but  the  produce  was  very  poor  in  comparison  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
field."  Adding  some  saltpetre  to  the  liquor  in  which  the  barley  i? 
soaked,  will  probably  be  found  of  great  service. 

Sec  article  Sowing. 

It  is  injurious  to  harvest  this  grain  before  it  is  tl^oroughiy  ripened ; 
and,  after  it  is  cut,  it  should  lie  a  night  or  two  in  the  dew,  in  order  U< 
make  the  beards  come  off  more  easily  in  threshing. 

This  grain,  like  many  others,  will  degenerate  so  much  in  a  few 
years  as  not  to  be  worth  cultivating,  if  the  seed  be  not  frequently 
changed.  The  farmer  ought,  therefore,  to  procure  new  recruits  of  seed 
brought  from  some  considerable  distance.  It  may  be  advisable  also, 
to  change  the  kind  of  barley  in  order  to  ascertain  which  is  most  suit- 
able to  the  soil.  These  are  various  :  There  is  the  two-rmvcd,  the 
four-rowed  and  the  six-rowed  barley  :  and,  there  is  also  a  species  of 
barley  which  has  no  husk  upon  it,  which  is  commonlj-  called  spelt. 
(See  article  Spelt.)  The  six-rowed  barley  is  sowed  in  England  and 
Ireland,  as  a  winter  grain,  and  is  there  called  bear,  bere,  or  barley-big. 
It  shells  very  much  if  suffered  to  stand  until  it  is  sufiBciently  ripe.  The 
four-rowed  barley  has  generally  been  cultivated  in  this  and  theneio'h- 
bouring  states;  probably  because,  in  them,  it  has  generally  been 
found  the  best  for  cultivation. 


14  FARMER'S  ASSISTAINT. 

As  in  some  parts  farmers  have  attempted  to  cultivate  this  grain  witli- 
out  success,  it  may  be  well  to  observe,  that  perhaps  the  cause  of  this 
failure  was  owine  to  their  lands  not  having  been  made  sufficiently 
rich — to  not  having  been  plou<:htd  and  harrowed  sufficiently — to  not 
having  sowed  on  them  a  sufficiency  of  seed ;  for  if  this  be  not  done, 
this  grain  wiil  often  be  choaked  with  weeds — to  seed,  which  had  be- 
come degenerated  by  having  been  too  long  used  in  one  part  of  the 
country- — or,  perhaps,  to  the  icind  of  barley  not  having  been  suitable 
to  the  soil.  If  the  farmer  has  satisfied  himself  as  to  all  these  particu- 
lars, and  still  finds  himself  unsuccessful  in  the  culture  of  this  grain,  he 
may  conclude  that  either  his  soil,  of  whatever  kind  it  may  be,  or  the 
climate  in  which  his  farm  is  situated,  is  not  suitable  to  the  culture  of 
barley. 

Whtrever  a  country  is  found  suitable  to  tlie  culture  of  barley,  and 
not  so  suitable  for  raising  wheat  or  rye,  there,  particularly,  it  becomes 
highly  expedient  to  erect  mills  for  hulling  barley;  for  this  grain,  when 
bulled,  can  be  converted  into  a  very  good  substitute  for  wheat  or  rye- 
bread.  Peas  can  also  be  hulled  at  such  mills,  \Niiich  renders  them  ex- 
cellent for  soups,  &:c. 

BARN.  The  size  of  the  barn  oughi  to  be  proportionate  to  the  pro- 
<luceof  the  farm,  for  in  this  country,  where  building  is  not  expensive, 
all  the  hay  and  grain  ought  to  be  stored  in  buildings  sufficient  to  cover 
them.  Many  farmers  content  themselves  with  a  small  barn,  perhaps 
not  sufficient  to  hold  half  their  produce,  while  most  of  their  hay  is  left 
in  their  meadows,  in  stacks,  to  be  there  foddered  out  to  the  cattle  in  the 
course  of  the  winter.  In  this  way  the  manure  if  almost  totally  lost, 
as  a  stack  containing  five  tons  of  hay,  fed  out  in  this  way,  would  not 
manure  an  eighth  of  an  acre  to  any  essential  purpose  :  Cow-dung,  in 
particular,  is  most  beneficial  when  buried  in  a  dry  soil ;  but  when  laid 
on  a  wet  soil  it  answers  but  little  pur|)08e.  In  the  mean  time,  if  the 
meadow  happens  to  be  bare  and  unfrozen,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  cat- 
tle will  indeed  have  the  chance  of  picking  some  dead  grass,  but  at  the 
expense  of  destroying  the  roots,  and  of  poaching  the  soil  with  their 
feet,  which  produces  an  additional  injury  to  the  meadow. 

If  the  ground  will  admit,  the  barn  ought  to  be  about  so  far  distant 
from  the  house,  and  in  such  direction  from  it,  as  to  preclude  all  danger 
of  fire  being  communicated  from  the  one  to  the  other,  by  the  means 
of  the  most  prevalent  high  winds. 

The  farmers  of  the  older  parts  of  Pennsylvania  build  very  large 
barns  in  general,  and  to  obviate  the  consecjuences  of  the  hay  or  grain 
beating,  in  a  large  mow,  four  poles  or  pieces  of  timber  are  set  up  in 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  15 

middle,  so  as  to  form  >vithin  them  a  square  space  of  about  three  feet. 
The  poles  are  braced  by  cross  pieces  at  certain  distances.  Through 
the  aperture  thus  made,  the  extra  moisture  in  the  hay  or  grain  has  a 
chance  to  escape,  so  as  to  prevent  its  being  mow-burat.  Their  barns 
are  usually  built  of  stone,  and  in  the  walls  a  large  n\imber  of  small 
holes  are  made  for  the  admission  of  air.  Their  cattle  axe  chiefly  all 
housed,  and  their  dung  is  uuder  cover  when  thrown  out  of  the  stables, 
to  prevent  its  being  injured  by  the  rains.  The  roofs  of  the  barns  are 
usually  painted  to  preserve  theai  against  the  weather. 

The  floor  of  the  barn  ought  to  be  kept  tight,  so  that  the  grain  can- 
not fall  through  in  threshing,  and  for  this  purpose  it  should  have  a  layer 
of  thin  boards  under  it.  It  is  most  advisable  also,  to  have  a  place  set 
apart  in  the  barn  for  the  purpose  of  storing  away  the  grain  after  it  is 
threshed.  The  bins  for  the  grain  should  be  made  of  hard  plank  to  pre- 
vent the  rats  and  mice  eating  through  them,  and  should  have  lids  which 
can  be  fastened  dawn  with  padlocks.  A  row  of  narrow  bins  with  dif- 
ferent apartments  for  various  kinds  of  grain  may  be  placed  very  con- 
veniently along  the  side  of  the  floor  where  the  horse-stable  is  placed, 
so  as  to  be  partly  under  the  manger. 

BARN-YARD.  The  practice  of  having  a  barn-yard  on  a  decli- 
vity is  a  bad  one,  as  in  this  way  very  much  manure  is  washed  away  with- 
out essentially  benefiting  the  adjoining  grounds.  The  yard  should 
be  level,  and  lowest  in  the  middle,  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
much  liertilizing  liquor,  that  will  otherwise  run  off  from  the  dung  dur- 
ing heavy  rains.  It  should  be  cleared  in  the  Spring  of  the  dung 
made  during  Winter,  and  if  the  milch-cows  and  other  cattle  are  to 
be  kept  in  it  at  night  during  Summer,  much  manure  may  be  made  in 
it  by  carting  in  rubbish  of  various  kinds,  together  with  suitable  earths 
to  mix  with  the  dung  of  the  cattle  and  absorb  their  stale. 

The  yard  should  also  have  a  high  close  fence  round  it,  as  well  for 
securing  the  cattle  as  for  breaking  ofl"  the  winds,  and  in  order  to  make 
the  most  of  the  dung,  the  cattle  should  be  kept  constantly  in  the  yard 
during  the  season  of  (bddering  and  have  a  well  close  adjoining  to  sup- 
ply them  with  water.  The  stifler  the  soil  of  the  barn-yard  the  less 
manure  will  be  lost  by  the  stale  and  wash  soaking  into  the  earth,  and 
for  this  reason  some  have  taken  the  trouble  to  cover  the  whole  with  a 
thick  layer  of  clay. 

BEAN;  (Vicia.)  There  are  a  great  variety  of  beans,  some  of 
which  are  best  adapted  for  field  husbandry  and  others  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. For  the  former,  the  English  or  Windsor  bean  is  the  best  for 
strong  clays  and  other  rich  soils,  and  the  little  white  bean  for  thoste 


16  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

which  are  light  ami  <Irr.     They  are  each  cultivated   in  the  drill 
method,  and  ploughed  aod  hoed  like  other  hoed  crops. 

The  English  bran  is  to  be  sowed  early  as  a  little  frost  uill  not  hurt 
it.  When  the;  have  grown  to  the  height  of  about  three  feet,  and  in- 
cline to  become  too  tall,  the  tops  should  be  broken  off.  After  gather- 
iBg  the  first  crop  the  stalks  are  to  be  cut  off  cl6?e  to  the  ground,  and  a 
a  growth  of  suckers  will  rise  and  afford  another  green  crop  late  in  the 
fall. 

The  little  white  bean  is  to  be  pulled  before  the  fall  frosts  and  to  lie 
on  the  ground  to  dry  and  ripen.  The  haulm  of  beans  should  be  saved 
for  winter  food  for  sheep,  as  they  are  very  fond  of  it. 

For  culinary  jiurposes,  the  Canada  bean,  which  is  a  bush  bean, 
ripens  soonest,  and  is  therefore  to  be  preferred  for  an  early  supply  ; 
the  pods,  however,  become  unfit  for  eating  when  the  bean  has  attain- 
ed its  size.  Of  those  which  have  vines,  the  case-knife  bean,  the  cran- 
berry, and  the  thousand  for  one,  so  called,  are  very  good.  The  short 
bean,  as  it  is  called,  is  also  much  esteemed  on  account  of  the  pod 
being  good  to  eat  when  the  bean  is  full  grown.  Mr.  Deane  says,  the 
best  manure  for  beans  which  have  vines  is  hog's  dung  with  a  mixture 
of  ashes. 

When  beans  are  cultivated  in  a  climate  which  are  not  natural  to 
them,  they  will  degenerate ;  and,  therefore,  fresh  supplies  of  seed 
should  be  obtained  from  that  country  to  which  they  are  best  adapted. 

BEER.  To  inakc  Spruce-Beer. — Boil  some  spruce  bouglis  with 
some  Avheat-bran  till  the  water  tastes  sufficiently  of  the  spruce ;  strain 
the  water  and  stir  in  at  the  rate  of  two  quarts  of  molasses  to  a  half 
barrel ;  work  it  with  the  emrdyings  of  beer,  or  with  yeast  if  you  have 
it;  after  working  sufficiently  bung  up  the  cask,  or  which  is  belter, 
bottle  it?  contents. 

To  mcJce  Molasses-Beer. — Take  five  pounds  of  molasses,  half  a  pint 
of  yeast  and  a  spoonful  of  powdered  ginger ,  put  these  into  a  vessel, 
and  pour  on  two  gallons  of  scalding  hot  so/l  water;  shake  the  whole 
till  a  fermentation  is  produced ;  then  add  of  the  same  kiud  of  water 
sufficient  to  fill  up  your  half  barrel.  If  the  cask  be  greater  or  smaller 
than  thig,  the  component  parts  must  be  in  proportion.  Let  the  liquor 
ferment  about  twelve  hours,  then  bottle  it,  with  a  raisin  or  two  in  each 
bottle. 

If  honey  instead  of  molasses  be  used,  at  the  rate  of  about  twelve 
pounds  to  the  barrel,  it  will  make  a  very  fine  beverage  after  havinj 
been  bottled  a  %vhUe. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  17 

To  make  Beer  with  Hops.— Take  five  quarts  of  wheat  bran  and 
(hree  ouDcesof  hops,  and  boil  them  fifteen  minutes  in  fifteen  gallons  of 
water  ;  strain  the  liquor;  add  two  quarts  of  molasses ;  cool  it  quickly 
to  about  the  temperature  of  new  milk,  and  put  it  into  your  half  barrel, 
having  the  cask  completely  filled.  Leave  the  bung  out  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  in  order  that  the  yeast  may  be  worked  off  ami  thrown  out, 
and  then  the  beer  will  be  fit  for  use.  About  the  fifth  day  bottle  off 
what  remains  in  the  cask,  or  it  will  turn  sour  if  the  weather  be  warm. 
I  f  the  cask  be  new  apply  yeast  or  beer  empt3ings  to  bring  on  the  fer- 
mentatioQ ;  but  if  it  has  been  in  this  use  before  that  will  not  be  ne- 
cessary. 

Yeast,  particularly  the  whiter  part,  is  much  fitter  to  be  used  for  fer- 
menting than  the  mere  grounds  of  the  beer  barrel ;  and  the  same  may 
be  observed  in  regard  to  its  use  in  fermenting  dough  for  bread. 

To  recover  a  cask  of  stale  Small-Beer. — Take  some  hops  and  some 
chalk  broken  to  pieces,  put  them  in  a  bag,  and  put  them  in  at  the  bung- 
hole  and  then  stop  up  the  cask  closely.  Let  the  proportion  be  two 
ounces  of  hops  and  a  pound  of  chalk  for  a  half  barrel. 

To  cure  a  cask  of  ropy  Beer. — Mix  two  handsful  of  bean  flour  with 
one  handful  of  salt  and  stir  it  in. 

To  feed  a  cask  of  Beer. — Bake  a  rye-loaf  well  nutmegged  ;  cut  it  in 
pieces  and  put  it  in  a  narrow  bag  with  some  hops  and  some  wheat,  and 
put  the  bag  into  the  cask  at  the  bung-hole. 

To  clarify  Beer. — For  a  half  barrel  take  about  six  ounces  of  chalk, 
burn  it,  and  put  it  into  the  cask.  This  will  disturb  the  liquor  and  fine 
it  in  twenty-four  hours. 

It  is  also  recommended  in  some  cases  to  dissolve  some  loaf-sugat 
and  add  to  the  above  ingredients. 

BEES.  The  product  of  these  is  almost  entirely  clear  gain,  as  their 
honey  and  wax  is  principally  extracted  from  flowers  without  injuring 
Ihem.  Rural  economy  is  incomplete  where  the  yearly  supply  which 
may  be  derived  from  bees  is  wanting;  the  expense  of  occasionally  at- 
tending them  is  but  trifling  when  compared  with  their  products;  and, 
that  attention  can  scarcely  be  called  labor  but  rather  an  amusement. 

In  every  hive  or  swarm  of  bees  there  are  two  sorts  beside  what  is 
called  the  queen  bee.  She  is  distinguished  by  being  larger,  and  of  a 
brio^hter  red  than  the  rest.  She  is  said  to  be  the  leader  of  the  swarm 
.ind  to  lay  the  eggs  in  the  cells  for  new  broods,  which  consist  of  thou- 
sands every  year.  The  other  kinds  are  the  drones  which  have  no 
siin"-3,  are  the  darkest  colored,  and  are  supposed  to  be  the  males;  and 
1  he  honey  or  working  bees,  which  are  much  the  most  numerons. 

3 


18  FARMER'S  AS5=If=TANT. 

The  bee-house  should  be  at  a  proper  distance  from  places  wbert 
catlle  are  kept,  or  where  horses  are  tied :  Irom  hog-sties  and  everj 
other  place  where  filth  is  collected.  It  should  be  ojien  to  the  south. 
ivith  the  other  si<]es  close.  Let  it  stand  leaning  forward  a  little  witb 
the  front  part  o^  the  roof  projecting  over  coosidtrably  to  prevent  south- 
erly rains  from  wetting  the  hives.  These  should  be  kept  dry,  cleaD> 
and  warm  iu  winter ;  not  so  warm  however  as  to  tempt  the  bees  abroad 
in  warm  winter  days.  The  species  of  swallow  called  martins  will 
destroy  bees,  of  course  no  harbor  should  be  afforded  these  birds. 

One  method  of  managing  bees,  as  recommended  by  Mr.  Deane,  is 
as  follows:  Three  hives  of  the  same  dimensions,  say  ten  inches  in 
heighth,  each,  aud  fourteen  inches  in  diameter  each  way,  are  to  be 
placed  one  on  the  top  of  the  other.  The  two  undermost  ones  are  to 
have  square  holes  in  the  tops,  about  three  inches  in  diameter,  and 
covered  with  a  sli4ling  shutter.  Let  each  hive  have  also  a  place  ol 
entrance  two  or  three  inches  long  and  a  third  of  an  inch  high.  I'be 
square  holes  in  the  two  lowermost  are  to  be  ojien.  The  bees  will  611 
the  uppermost  hive  first.  When  this  is  full,  which  can  be  ascertained 
by  weighing  it  in  a  cool  morning  when  the  bees  do  not  stir,  take  ir 
off  and  carry  it  into  a  room  with  a  wiDdow  open  to  the  nwrning  sun, 
and  as  this  enlivens  the  bees  they  will  fly  off  to  their  accustomed  place 
and  commence  their  labors  in  storing  the  second  hive,  which  should 
then  have  the  hole  in  its  top  closed.  When  this  is  filled  the  same 
process  is  to  be  repeated  ;  but  w  hen  they  have  filled  the  last  hive,  let 
it  remain  for  the  winter  stock  of  provisions  for  the  swarm. 

In  taking  out  the  honey  from  the  hive,  which  should  be  done 
speedily,  let  those  bees  which  are  loun*'  unable  to  fly  be  thrown  into 
a  tub  of  water,  out  of  which  they  can  crawl  again,  and  they  will  soon 
recover  their  wonted  activity  and  go  after  their  companions. 

Id  this  way  there  is  no  necessity  for  the  process  of  fire  and  hriis- 
etone  for  gettinc  rid  ol  the  bees — a  procedure  equally  cruel  and 
destructive  to  their  race. 

Another  method  of  taking  the  honey  without  killing  the  bees,  is  as 
follows  :  When  the  hive  is  6lle<l  w  ith  honey,  take  it  in  the  night  and 
turn  it  bottom  upwards,  and  sf  i  an  enipfy  hive  of  the  same  size  with 
its  bottcm  exactly  on  the  bottom  of  the  other:  Let  (here  be  one  or 
two  cross  pieces  uithin  the  empty  hive  lor  the  bees  lo  light  on  :  Then 
take  a  stick  and  strike  gently  on  the  sides  ol  the  full  hive,  and  the 
bees  will  leave  it  antl  ascend  to  the  upper  <>'>e.  When  they  havp  ;,II 
i5Dt  into  lhi»,  l«ke  it  otf  gently  and  »et  it  \vhere  the  lull  hive  stood,  anfl 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  i^ 

xke  bees  will  go  to  work  again  as  before.  This  b  the  method  usually 
practised  in  i  rauce. 

But,  perhaps,  the  foUowiqg  maBagement  is  the  best :  Have  a  bole 
in  the  top  of  the  l)ive,  covered  with  a  shutter,  as  belore  described- 
W  hen  this  is  tilled,  which  is  to  be  known  by  the  bees  lying  inactive 
about  its  mouth,  oj)en  the  hole  above  and  set  a  small  hne  on  the  top, 
into  which  they  will  ascend  and  fill  it  with  the  purest  honey,  without 
any  nusture  of  the  bee-bread.  Mhen  full,  take  it  ofl'  as  before  direct- 
e-d  and  place  another  in  its  steaiL  The  bees  in  the  full  hive  nill  soon 
fly  off  to  the  old  one,  and  the  swarm  will  recommence  iheir  labors  in 
filling  the  empty  one  again.  \N  hen  full,  take  it  away  as  before,  and 
S'et  the  empty  one  in  its  place.  These  upper  hives  should  hold  about 
seventeen  pounds  of  honey  when  filled,  and  such  the  swarm  will  usu- 
ally fill  three  times  in  a  season.  The  boney  in  the  lower  hive  is  to 
remain  for  their  winter  food. 

To  preserve  be^s  from  the  morm  or  butterjf!y,  which  has  lately  proved 
so  destructive  to  them, — About  tlie  first  of  May,  raise  the  hives  up  and 
atrew  some  fine  salt  under  the  edges  which  will  drive  the  worms  away. 
A  writer  in  a  late  Morristown  paper,  says,  that  he  has  tried  this  for 
two  years  with  complete  success. 

It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  feed  bees  when  their  stock  is  exliausted. 
If  this  be  near  the  close  of  winter,  motives  of  interest  alone  will  dic- 
tate the  measure ;  but  if  they  are  fouad  destitute  more  early,  then 
their  destiny  must  be  averted  from  motives  of  compassion.  And  is 
the  industnous  insect  that  toils  incessantly  lor  us  during  summer,  un- 
worlhy  of  pity  in  the  hour  of  distress  ?  It  should  be  remembered,  for 
it  tends  to  soften  and  ennoble  the  Iveart,  that  when  even  a  little  bee 
perishes  with  famine,  it  "  feels  a  pang  as  great  as  when  a  giant  dies." 

Honey  is  the  most  natural  food  for  bees.  It  is  to  be  conveyed  into 
the  hives  by  very  small  troughs,  and  the  food  is  to  be  given  to  them 
^aily  until  they  are  able  to  provide  for  themselves.  Toasted  bread 
soaked  in  strong  ale  is  also  good  to  give  them,  as  they  will  consume 
the  whole  of  it. 

Sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  join  two  sraafl  swarms  together.  This, 
says  tlie  last  mentioned  author,  is  done  by  stupifying  them  with  the 
smoke  of  the  dried  mushroom  which  is  commonlj'  called  puff-ball.  It 
is  first  to  be  compressed  and  then  dried  in  an  oven,  till  it  will  retain 
fire.  The  hives  intende<l  to  l>e  joined  are  to  be  placed  with  iheir  bot- 
toms over  those  of  two  empty  ones — a  piece  of  puff,  set  on  fire,  is 
placed  under  each  full  hive  so  that  the  smoke  will  ascend  into  them — 
and,  when  the  bees  have  become  aapified,  let  the  full  hives  be  knock' 


ae  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

ed  gently  on  the  sides  and  the  bees  will  fall  into  the  empty  ones  in  b 
torpid  state,  when  the  queen-bee  of  one  of  the  swarms  must  be  search- 
ed for  and  killed.  The  two  swarms  are  then  to  be  put  together,  mix- 
ing them  well,  and  dropping  them  among  the  combs  of  the  hives  they 
are  to  inhabit.  The  door  of  the  hive  is  then  to  be  covered  with  h 
cloth  so  that  (hey  cannot  get  out. 

The  second  night  after  their  union,  remove  the  cloth  in  the  dusk  of 
the  evening,  and  the  bees  will  sally  forth ;  but  on  account  of  the  ap- 
proaching night  they  will  soon  return.  Keej)  them  confined  for  three 
or  four  days  longer,  letting  them  out  in  the  evening  as  before,  and  then 
the  cloth  may  be  removed. 

Sometimes  the  bees  which  are  owned  by  one,  will  be  found  carrying 
off  the  honey  from  the  hives  belonging  to  another,  to  their  own  dwell- 
ings, and  in  that  case,  the  bees  of  the  emptied  hives  are  always  found 
to  follow.  Whether  this  be  a  matter  of  conquest  on  one  side,  or  of 
consent  on  the  other,  is  difficult  to  say  ;  but  where  the  owner  of  the 
deserting  bees  finds  this  to  be  case,  which  is  to  be  known  by  the  sud- 
den desertion  and  emptying  of  his  hives,  perha|)s  liis  best  remedy  is, 
to  remove  his  remaining  swarms  to  another  neighborhood  for  that 
season,  or  to  change  his  stock  of  bees. 

It  should  be  added,  that  many  disbelieve  either  the  existence  of 
the  queen-bee,  or  that  one,  and  one  only,  is  to  be  found  in  every  swarm. 
BEET  ;  (Beta.)  There  are  varieties  of  beets,  but  the  best  are 
the  red,  and  the  redder  the  sweeter.  Sow  them  early,  if  the  soil  be 
not  very  rich,  but  they  may  be  sown  later  where  it  is  strong.  The 
soil  should  be  well  mellowed  to  a  good  depth.  A  soil  naturally  mel- 
low is  best  for  them.  The  larger  they  grow  the  farther  they  should 
be  set  apart,  even  to  the  distance  of  twelve  inches.  The  seeds  gene- 
rally come  up  double,  but  should  be  separated  while  young,  otherwise 
both  roots  will  be  small  and  sometimes  twisted  round  each  other. 
Those  taken  out  may  be  transplanted,  yet  they  will  make  but  short 
roots.  Beets  should  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  till  the  leaves  covering 
the  ground  prevent  their  further  growth. 

The  roots  should  be  dug  up  before  any  severe  frosts;  none  of  the 
fibrous  roote  should  be  taken  away,  nor  should  the  tops  be  cut  close. 
Jn  this  situation  they  should  be  boiled  to  prevent  any  loss  of  their 
juice.  In  winter  they  are  best  kept  in  sand,  and  they  should  not  be 
suffered  to  freeze,  as  this  makes  them  tough  and  unfit  for  use. 

In  Europe  this  root  is  now  ajiplied  to  the  i)urposes  of  making  sugar 
jvnd  ardent  spirits ;  the  knoulege  of  which  uses  is  probably  calculated 
'o  confer  on  it  a  great  additional  value. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  21 

Some  of  the  most  enterprising  English  farmers  are  in  the  practice 
of  raising  beets  for  feeding  and  fattening  cattle. 

B0G-3IEAD0WS.  Where  these  are  not  a  turf,  but  a  mere  loose 
black  dirt  and  can  be  drained  sufficiently,  ha\ing  then  a  sufficient 
depth,  they  make  valuable  lands,  particularly  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
hemp.  The  drier  this  land  can  be  laid  the  better.  When  this  earth 
is  carted  out  upon  upland  it  is  found  a  good  manure ;  and  upland,  par- 
ticularly gravel  and  sand,  when  carted  into  bo^-meadows  is  almost 
equally  beneficial.  Prodigious  great  crops  of  herdsgrass  have  been 
raised  on  them  when  thus  manured  with  upland  earth  ;  aud  if  this  be 
so  beneficial  for  grass,  why  not  equally  so  with  hemp  ?  It  would 
seem,  that  not  only  grass  and  hemp,  but  many  other  productions,  such 
as  Indian  corn,  potatoes,  cabbage,  carrots,  beets,  turnips,  parsnips,  and 
perhaps,  almost  every  grain  but  wheat,  might  be  cultivated  to  great 
advantage  on  well  drained  bog-lands,  where  they  had  been  previously 
well  manured  \vith  upland  earths.  The  Indian  corn,  however,  must 
he  such  as  has  been  long  cultivated  in  a  more  northerly  climaie,  and 
of  course,  ripens  so  soon  as  to  escape  the  early  frosts  which  prevail  ia 
lK)g-mcadow5.  Hoj)s  are  cultivated  to  great  advantage  in  these 
lands. 

The  method  of  draining  these  lands  effectually,  is,  first  to  rnn  a 
ditch  through  the  middle,  and  draw  off  as  much  of  its  Avaters  in  this 
way  as  possible.  Where  the  meadow  is  very  wet  and  miry,  you  com- 
mence at  the  htvcst  part  of  the  ground  where  you  design  its  outlet  to 
begin,  and  from  thence  carry  the  ditch  into  the  meadow,  sinking  it  all 
the  way  as  you  proceed,  as  low  as  Arill  barely  give  the  waters  a  cur- 
rent to  run  off;  and  the  dee[)er  this  ditch  can  be  sunk  the  better.  You 
then  run  a  ditch  proportionately  deep  all  round  the  edge  of  the  bo«-, 
for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off  all  the  springs.  Then  cross  ditches  are 
to  be  made,  in  number  and  size  proportionate  to  the  extent  of  the  boo- 
and  of  the  size  of  the  middle  and  surrounding  ditches.  Generallj^ 
speaking,  the  deeper  and  larger  your  ditches,  the  fewer  cross  ditches 
you  need  have. 

It  should  be  remembered,  that  bog  lands  will  settle  down  very  much 
after  draining,  for  which  a  due  allowance  ought  to  be  m»de  in  regard 
to  the  depth  of  the  ditches.  Sometimes  it  may  be  found,  that  there 
will,  after  draining,  be  too  thin  a  layer  of  bog  dirt  above  the  clav  on 
which  it  is  bottomed  to  be  of  much  value ;  and  foreseeino-  this  it 
ought  in  some  cases  to  deter  the  proprietor  from  going  to  the  expense 
of  draining  the  swamp,  particularly  if  it  be  covered  with  a  thrifty 
growth  of  timber. 


22  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

See  further,  article  Ditches. 

BOT-\N  OHMS.  'J'he  manner  in  which  these  are  produced  iathitt ; 
An  insect  gonieuhat  resembling  a  bee  in  its  head  and  ntck,  having  a 
long  crooked  tail,  may  be  seen  during  the  months  of  autumn,  almost 
constantly  flying  about  horses,  aud  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  will 
fill  their  hair,  particularly  about  the  breast  and  legs  with  great  uum- 
bers  of  its  nits.  W  henever  the  horse  itches  in  any  part,  he  applies 
his  teeth  for  the  purpose  of  scratching;  in  doing  this  he  loosens  some 
of  these  nits,  and  they  are  received  into  his  moutii,  from  whence  they 
pass  with  his  food  iutothe  stomach, and  from  these  the  bot  is  produced. 
Experiments  which  have  been  communicated  by  Mr.  Livingston  put 
this  matter  out  of  doubt. 

To  kill  hots  in  a  horse,  pour  a  quart  of  rum  down  his  throat.  This 
will  make  them  loose  their  hold  of  the  maw,  and  they  Avill  be  carried 
off  with  its  contents.  Repeat  the  dose  as  often  as  may  be  found  ne- 
cessary. A  few  doses  of  linseed  oil,  one  pint  each  time,  will  also 
quickly  effect  a  cure. 

See  also  BarllcCs  Farrierxj  for  his  metliod  of  cure. 

BUCK-WHEAT;  (Polygonium.)  The  product  of  this  grain  is 
quite  uncertain,  owing  to  the  degree  of  heat  prevailing  during  the  time 
it  is  in  blossom.  If  there  be  much  warm  weather  at  this  time,  the 
grain  will  not  be  well  tilled.  The  projjcr  time  to  sow  it  is  when  the 
chesnut  trees  are  in  full  blossom.  This  is  (he  rule  in  those  parts 
where  chesnut  trees  grow.  Perhaps  the  time  wJien  herds-grass  first 
begins  to  blossom,  or  a  little  sooner  in  more  northern  climates,  might 
afford  a  more  general  rule  for  farmers  in  every  |)art  of  the  country. 

A  crop  of  buck-wheat  is  very  easily  raised ;  it  requires  but  little 
ploughing,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  little  gypsum  will  grow  year  after 
year  on  a  poor  piece  of  land,  provided  it  be  suitable  to  the  use  of  gyp- 
sum. It  is  pretty  good  to  fatten  hogs,  to  feed  horses  and  fowls ;  but 
its  peculiar  excellence  is  for  the  purjiose  of  making  cakes,  which,  while 
warm,  are  more  generallj'  liked  than  any  other  kind  of  bread. 

About  hall  a  bushel,  or  less,  is  sufficient  seed  for  an  acre.  Some- 
times a  crop  of  rye  is  sown  with  the  buck-wheat,  and  in  this  way  a 
tolerable  crop  of  each  may  usually  be  obtained  ;  perhaps  fifteen  or 
twenty  bushels  of  buckwheat  and  ten  bushels  of  rye  to  the  acre.  This 
is  considerable  for  the  small  quantity  of  labor  laid  out;  but  the  rent 
of  the  land  ought  also  to  be  brought  into  the  account  of  profit. 

BULL.    See  article  Neat  Cattle. 

BinJN-BAKING.  A  method  of  manuring  stiff  clay  lands.  It  is 
performed  by  paring  off  the  Bward  in  pieces  about  eighteen  inches 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  23 

long,  a  foot  wide,  and  two  or  three  inches  thick ;  these  are  set  ou 
their  edges,  leaning  against  each  other,  to  dry,  which  in  good  weather 
requires  about  three  weeks.  They  are  then  laid  up  somewhat  in  form 
of  ovens,  with  their  mouths  to  a  common  windward  side,  having  a  hole 
in  the  top  of  each  for  the  smoke  to  pass  off.  In  a  dry  day  when  the 
wind  blows  into  the  mouths,  they  are  set  on  fire  with  straw,  and  if 
they  burn  too  briskly  some  earth  must  be  thrown  on  to  deaden  the 
fires.  At  the  end  of  about  three  days  they  will  be  completely  burnt 
through,  and  then  the  burnt  earth  is  spread  over  the  ground  and 
ploughed  in  with  a  shoal  furrow. 

See  further  article  Weeds,  for  another  use  of  Burn-Baking. 

For  cutting  up  the  sward  in  squares  for  burn-baking — a  roller  with 
sharp  iron  rims  round  it,  at  suitable  distances,  is  to  be  used.  As  the 
roller  passes  over  the  ground  the  rims  sink  into  it  suflBciently  deep. 
The  ground  is  first  to  be  cut  one  way  with  this  implement,  then  with 
another  implement,  resembling  a  wheel  plough  ;  it  is  cut  into  squares 
by  crossing  the  direction  of  the  roller,  and  the  squares  are  at  the  same 
time  severed  underneath  by  a  broad  thin  share  for  the  purpose,  and 
are  turned  over  in  the  manner  of  turning  over  sward  ground.  They 
are  then  to  be  set  up  as  before  directed. 

Mr.  Young,  the  late  famous  agriculturalist  of  Great-Britain,  re- 
commends burn-baking,  where  it  can  be  easily  performed,  as  highly 
beneficial  to  cold,  stiff,  and  clayey  soils. 

BURNT  CLAY.  This  is  a  good  manure  for  clay  and  other  heavy 
soils.  In  "  The  Complete  Grader"  it  is  also  recommended  for  light 
soils.     The  method  of  preparing  it  is  as  follows  : 

In  the  first  place  dig  your  clay  in  spits  of  the  size  of  bricks  and  lei. 
them  be  well  dried  in  the  sun  :  Take  small  billets  of  wood,  or  faggot? 
of  brush,  and  pile  them  up  in  the  form  of  a  sugar-loaf  three  or  tour 
feet  high ;  then  pile  your  spits  of  <li'ied  clay  closely  round  this,  leav- 
ing a  hole  on  side  to  kindle  the  fire  and  another  in  the  top  for  the 
smoke  to  pass  off:  Surround  the  pile  again  with  two  more  enclosures 
of  the  spits  of  clay,  and  then  kindle  the  fire:  When  it  has  j^otlen 
well  on  fire  stop  up  the  holes  with  clay,  and  the  innate  heat  will  so 
fire  the  mass,  that  wet  clay  may  be  thrown  on  in  great  quantities.  Care 
must  however  be  taken,  not  to  lay  it  on  so  fast,  nor  so  closely,  as  to 
put  out  the  fire,  as  in  that  case  you  must  begin  anew.  By  raising  r 
stage  round  the  pile  you  may  throw  on  clay  till  you  get  it  as  high  as 
you  please.  The  pile  must  be  watched  day  and  night  till  fuUy 
burnt. 


24  FARMER'S  A8SISTAx\T. 

Farmers  possessing  clay  lands  will  tlo  well  to  make  experiments  ot 
this  manure.  From  (en  to  twenty  loads  of  it  is  a  suitable  dressing  for 
an  ncre. 

BL'TTER.  For  curing  butter  take  Dr.  Anderson's  recipe  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Take  two  parts  of  common  salt,  one  of  brown  sugar,  and  one 
of  saltpetre  :  bent  them  together  so  as  to  blend  them  completely,  and 
apply  one  ounce  of  this  to  every  pountl  of  butter;  work  it  well  into 
the  mass  and  close  it  up  for  use/'  This  will  cost  about  a  cent  per 
pound  more  than  by  curing  butter  in  the  usual  way ;  but  its  peculiar 
excellence  is,  that  butter  thus  cured  will  keep  sweet  for  two  or  three 
years,  and  its  taste  is  much  superior  to  that  which  is  cured  in  the  com- 
mon way.  It  must  not,  however,  he  used  sooner  than  a  month  after 
it  has  been  laid  down,  as  it  doe^;  not  fully  acquire  its  rich  marrowy 
taste  until  about  that  length  of  time.  Butter  cured  in  this  way  and 
laid  down  for  winter  use,  will  then  be  found  worth  at  least  twenty-five 
per  cent  more  than  that  which  has  merely  been  cured  with  salt  alone. 

Dr.  Anderson  condemns  the  practice  of  keeping  milk  in  leaden  ves- 
iels,  and  butter  in  stone  jars,  as  communicating  to  the  milk,  and  to 
the  butter  a  poisonous  qualit}-  extremely  injurious  to  the  human  con- 
stitution. 

To  prevent  the  rancidity  of  common  salted  butter,  Mr.  De  "Wilt 
Tery  judiciously  recommends  making  it  into  rolls,  and  keeping  it  in 
a  pure  brine  in  a  cask  with  a  lid  and  dasher,  somewhat  similar  to  the 
common  churn.  The  dasher  is  for  the  purpose  of  kee|)ing  the  rolls 
under  the  brine,  wJiich  is  effected  by  means  of  a  cord  tied  at  one  side 
of  the  vessel,  run  over  the  bead  of  the  handle  of  the  dasher,  and 
then  tied  down  at  the  opposite  side.  The  brine  does  not  penetrate 
the  butter.  ;ind  therefore  may  be  made  strong:  and,  to  keep  it  pure 
it  may  be  occasionally  heated,  and  the  scum  taken  off,  Avhich  will 
clarify  it. 

Country  merchants,  who  take  in  butter,  by  attending  to  this,  may 
preserve  all  their  spring  and  summer  butter  sweet  for  the  fall  market. 

To  make  the  finest  butter,  take  the  last  fourth  part  of  the  milk  of 
each  teat  of  the  best  cows  for  making  butter  and  make  it  by  itself. 
The  first  part  of  the  milking,  which  contains  much  the  least  and  the 
poorest  of  the  cream  can  be  made  into  inferior  butter,  or  used  for 
other  purpo?er. 

Butter  made  in  the  month  of  M^  is  observed  to  be  the  best  for 
keeping. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  as 


c. 


CABBAGE;  (Brascia.)  There  are  many  sorta  of  this  plant, 
such  as  the  coramon  >\hite  and  red  cabbage,  the  Dutch  and  Scotch, 
the  Savoy,  the  winter-green  globe,  the  brocoli,  the  borecole,  the  Bat- 
tersea,  the  turnip-cabbage,  &ic.  The  oil  called  rape-oil  is  made  Iroxn 
the  seeds  of  the  borecole,  or  rape,  as  it  is  sometinies  called. 

In  Great-Britain  the  cultivation  of  cabbages  is  a  part  of  field  hus- 
bandrj-,  and  thej  are  used  for  feeding  and  fatting  cattle  in  the  fall  and 
during  winter.  Our  winters  are  too  severe  for  this;  but  for  fall  use 
■we  might  raise  and  feed  them  to  advantage. 

Cabbages  require  a  soil  made  rich,  but  the  kind  is  not  so  material. 
Mr.  Young  makes  mention  of  good  crops  raised  in  red  sand.  Rich 
swamp  lands,  well  drained,  are  gooti  for  them.  They  will  grow  yearly 
on  the  same  ground,  and  they  exhaust  the  soil  but  little.  For  field 
culture  the  plants  are  to  be  set  in  rows  four  feet  apart  and  about  two 
feet  from  each  other,  and  ploughed  and  hoed  like  other  hoed  crop?. 
Transplanting  is  the  most  advisable  method,  though  the  seeds  may  be 
planted  at  first  w  here  they  are  designed  to  grow.  Strew  ing  soot,  ashes 
or  lime  round  them,  while  young,  will  assist  considerably  in  keeping 
oflf  the  insects  which  usually  attack  them.  Where  they  are  liable  to 
become  club-footed,  by  reason  of  worms  which  eat  into  their  roots,  a 
small  trifle  of  salt  strewed  round  them  is  good. 

When  cabbages  are  fed  to  milch-cows,  the  decayed  leaves  must  be 
taken  oET,  or  they  will  impart  a  bad  taste  to  the  milk  and  butter. 

Where  a  field-crop  of  cabbages  is  to  be  raised,  or  an  early  crop  for 
the  table,  the  seeds  for  the  plants  should  be  sown  very  early  in  the 
spring ;  where  the  crop  is  designed  for  fall  and  winter  use  the  seeds 
may  be  sown  later ;  hut  as  the  proper  time  for  this  must  still  depend 
on  the  climate,  it  is  a  matter  that  is  best  learned  by  experience. 

Cabbages  for  winter  use  should  be  pulled  in  dry  weather,  and  be 
well  dried  before  they  are  put  into  the  cellar.  Let  them  be  hung  up 
in  the  cellar  with  the  heads  downwards.  The  cellar  should  not  be 
too  warm  or  they  will  soon  rot.  They  may  also  be  kept  well  during 
winter,  by  cutting  off  the  heads  and  laying  them  away  in  a  cask  filled 
with  snow  and  keeping  them  in  a  cold  place. 

But  for  the  spring  supply,  let  a  trench  be  made  in  a  dry  soil  and 
line  it  with  straw ;  set  the  heads  in  closely  together  with  the  roots 
upwards;  cover  them  with  straw,  and  then  with  earth.,  piled  up  a* 

4 


2iL  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

steep  as  possible.     lu  this  maDner  (hey  ^viII  keep  till  May,  and  niaj 
occasionally  be  dug  out  as  they  are  wanted. 

The  turnip-cabbage,  so  called,  on  account  of  its  large  bulb  above 
ground,  is  a  pereoniel  plant,  and  \\'\\\  withstand  the  severity  of  our 
climate.  It  is  good  for  table  use  in  spring  and  does  not  grow  spongy 
when  old.  Its  culture  was  highly  recouimended  by  the  Bath  Society 
in  England,  as  an  article  of  profit  for  feeding  sheep  and  other  cattle  in 
the  spring.  By  Sir  Thomas  Bevor's  communication  to  that  societ}',  it 
appear?,  that  he  kept  twentyfour  bullocks  and  one  hundred  sheep, 
for  three  weeks,  on  two  acres  of  this  plant;  the  value  of  which  keep- 
ing he  estimated  at  a  sum  equal  to  about  sixty-five  dollars.  This  was 
in  the  year  1  770. 

This  plant  is  to  be  sown  and  cultivated  in  the  manner  most  proper 
for  turnips.  It  is  left  in  the  field  all  winter,  and  in  the  spring  the  cat- 
tle are  to  be  turned  in  to  eat  of  it  at  pleasure.  As  sheep  can  eat 
the  closest,  they  are  to  have  the  last  feeding. 

CALVES     Sec  article  Neat  Cattlf. 

CANKER.     Sec  article  Friit  Trees. 

CANKER-WORM.     See  article  Insects. 

CARRIAGES.  Some  of  the  best  British  farmers  principally 
use  one  horse  carts,  instead  of  waggons,  on  their  farms.  3Ir.  Young 
particularly  reconunends  them  for  this  purpose,  as  being  on  the  whole 
more  convenient  and  cheaper.  In  Ireland  the  wheel  car  is  almost 
universally  used  on  farms  and  for  transporting  on  the  highways.  On 
these,  one  man  is  found  sufficient  to  drive  four  cars ;  the  horses  being 
under  good  command,  and  follow  each  behind  the  other.  Each  horse 
draws  from  ten  to  twenty  hundred  weight,  acccording  to  the  state  of 
the  roads ;  for  it  is  found  that  one  animal  drawing  by  itself  in  a  car 
or  cart,  can  as  easily  draw  eight  hundred  weight,  as  two  can  draw 
twelve  hundred  weight  when  put  together  in  a  waggon.  The  reason 
of  this  is  obvious ;  in  a  cart  the  horse  carries  a  part  of  the  load  on  his 
back ;  and  in  drawing,  his  exertions  are  not  batBed  by  the  jostling 
and  unequal  exertions  of  another.  Carts  are,  however,  more  easily 
upset  in  bad  roads  than  waggons.  Another  objection  against  them 
is.  that  they  press  too  heavily  on  the  horse  or  oxen  when  going 
down  hill,  particularly  when  carrying  a  top-heavy  load;  and  they  in- 
cline to  tilt  up  behind  when  going  up  hill  with  such  load.  These  de- 
fects are,  however,  easily  obviated  by  a  contrivance  fixed  in  front  of 
the  box,  for  the  puq^ose  of  raising  its  fore  end  when  going  down  hill, 
and  of  sinking  it  wbeu  going  up,  so  that  in  either  case  the  centre  of 


FARMER'S  ASSISTATS'T.  27 

grayitj  of  the  load  will  not  be  materially  altered  from  what  it  is  on 
level  ground.  A  cart  contrived  and  used  by  Lord  Somerville,  in  Great 
Britain,  answers  this  purpose  in  part.  Aaotlier  contrivance  of  that 
nobleman's  is,  a  wooden  bar  placed  on  the  outside  of  each  wheel,  just 
above  the  hubs,  so  that  when  going  down  hill  the  bars  are  drawn  by 
each  end  against  the  sides  of  the  wheels  so  strongly  as  to  impede  their 
motion,  and  thus  prevent  the  load  pressing  forward  with  more  force 
than  is  convenient. — A  description  of  the  means  by  Avhich  these  se- 
veral operations  are  performed  is  here  omitted,  because  they  are,  per- 
haps, nearly  as  easily  imagined  as  described.  Any  one  wishing  to 
test  their  ef&cacy,  need  not  be  long  at  a  loss  for  the  means. 

The  cart  wheels  made  use  of  by  the  above  nobleman  and  others 
are  of  cast  iron,  being  about  three  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  rim  about 
four  inches  broad  ;  the  spokes  are  flat,  and  broadest  where  they  join 
the  hub  and  the  rim,  so  as  to  give  them  most  strength  w  here  most  is 
wanted.  If  any  part  of  the  wheel  happens  to  break  by  a  too  violent 
concussion,  it  can  be  mended  again  with  wrought  iron,  when  it  will 
be  as  strong  as  ever.  The  axletree  is  of  wrought  iron.  Such  a  cart 
may  last  an  age,  with  good  usage,  and  the  cost  of  them  is  not  so  great 
as  that  of  carts  made  of  wood.  Probably  they  would,  however,  be 
found  too  brittle  on  stony  lands  ;  though  their  strength  will  be  found 
very  great  if  cast  of  the  best  metal  to  be  had  for  the  purpose. 

In  the  construction  of  the  body  of  the  cart,  the  essential  points  are 
to  fit  it  for  the  purix)ses  for  which  it  is  mostly  to  be  used ;  to  place  so 
much  of  it  before  the  axletree  as  that,  when  filled,  about  a  fifth  of  the 
weight  of  its  contents  will  rest  on  the  horse;  and  that  it  be  so  con- 
trived as  to  be  tilted  up  to  empty  its  load. 

The  improvements  above  mentioned  for  regulating  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  load,  and  for  impeding  the  progress  of  the  carriage  in 
going  down  hill,  may  be  equally  well  applied  to  our  ox  carts. 

The  w  aggons  generally  used  in  this  country,  whether  for  one,  two 
or  more  horses,  are,  perhaps,  as  convenient  as  those  to  be  found  else- 
where; all  that  is  particularly  insisted  on  is,  that  according  to  the  ex- 
perience of  the  best  British  farmers,  the  one  horse  cart  should  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  waggon  on  smooth  w  ell  cultivated  farms,  as  being  cheap- 
er, and  more  convenient  for  most  uses. 

Whether  the  wheels  of  carts  be  made  of  wood  or  of  cast  iron,  the 
rims  should  be  as  much  as  four  inches  broad ;  by  this  means  they  sink 
less  into  the  earth,  and  therefore  run  more  safe  and  steadily.  Their 
being  low,  and  placed  pretty  wide  apart,  also  renders  the  cart  le?s  li- 
able to  upset. 


20  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT, 

Carriages  should  be  constantly  shielded  from  the  weather  ^vhen  not 
in  use ;  the  summer  sua  cracks  and  shrinks  the  ivood,  and  wet  weather 
tends  imperceptibly  to  decay  it,  and  to  waste  the  parts  n  hich  are  of 
iron  by  rust. 

For  the  best  method  of  seasoning  timber  for  carts,  waggons,  &c.  see 
article  Timber. 

Wap:gon9  and  carts  may  be  made  to  run  at  least  one  fifth  easier,  by 
having  iron  rollers  in  the  boxes — this  at  the  same  time  saves  the  trou- 
ble of  tarring  the  axletrees.  A  plan  has  been  patented  for  waggon 
boxes  with  rollers,  which  has  the  rollers  held  at  equal  distances  by 
having  each  end  fixed  in  a  rim  or  ring,  so  that  as  the  rollers  run  round 
in  the  inside  of  the  box,  the  ring  turns  with  them,  and  thus  prevents 
any  friction  by  the  rollers  getting  out  of  their  places.  If  four  or  five 
dollars  a  year  can  be  saved  by  the  easy  running  of  a  carriage,  by  be- 
ing enabled  to  carry,  perhaps,  a  fifth  more  at  a  load,  it  is  well  worth 
w^hile  to  be  at  the  additional  expense  of  four  or  five  dollars  in  the  first 
instance  to  fit  the  carriage  for  this  purpose. 

CARROT;  ("Daucus.)  There  are  few  articles  of  culture  inere 
profitable  than  that  of  carrots.  They  will  yield,  with  good  cultiva- 
tion, from  six  hundred  to  a  thousand  bushels  an  acre.  Allowing  them 
to  be  worth  nineteen  cents  a  bushel  for  the  purpose  of  fatting  hogs 
and  cattle,  and  taking  700  bushels  as  the  average  produce  of  an  acre, 
this  amounts  to  133  dollars.  Allowing  what  would  be  equal  to  40 
days  labor  to  an  acre  to  raise  and  gather  them,  which,  at  75  cents  a 
day  for  hire  and  boarding,  would  amount  to  30  dollars;  and  then  al- 
lowing 10  dollars  an  acre  for  the  rent  of  the  land,  this  would  leavr 
93  dollars  the  clear  profit  of  an  acre. 

Carrots  require  a  mellow  soil,  into  w  hich  they  can  easily  penetrate 
deeply.  They  will  grow  very  well  on  one  which  is  moderately 
rich,  provided  it  be  well  and  deeply  mellowed.  A  fertile  sand,  a 
sandy  loam,  a  dry  warm  loam,  or  a  fertile  gravelly  loam,  are  each 
suitable  for  them,  with  proper  manuring  and  cultivation.  The  ground 
ought  to  be  ploughed  til!  it  is  perfectly  mellow,  and  as  deep  as  possi- 
ble, not  less  than  a  foot  in  depth,  if  you  expect  the  beet  crops.  The 
land  should  be  perfectly  free  of  stone?.  The  best  way  is  to  plough 
but  one  way — not  to  cross  plough — for  this  is  only  necessary  in 
rough  hard  ground,  for  breaking  clods  and  other  obstructions  to  the 
plough  ;  hut  for  the  mere  purpose  of  mellowing  land,  cross  ploughing 
is  not  more  efficacious  than  constantly  ploughing  one  way.  In  this 
way  where  you  make  the  parting  furrow,  yoa  begin  the  next  time  to 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  29 

make  the  back  furrow,  and  thus  you  keej)  the  depth  of  tlie  earth  that 
is  stirred  by  the  plough  equal,  which  is  essential  to  the  equal  growth 
of  carrots.  The  ground  ought  to  be  ploughed  in  this  way  in  the  fall, 
and  then  but  little  will  be  requisite  to  prepare  it  in  the  Spring ;  after 
ploughing  in  the  Spring  it  ought  to  be  finely  harrowed,  aud  then  it 
will  be  fitted  for  the  reception  of  the  seed. 

The  sowing  is  performed  either  in  the  broadcast  way  or  the  drill. 
In  the  former,  the  seed  is  covered  with  a  rake  instead  of  a  harrow,  to 
prevent  its  being  covered  too  deep.  The  first  hoeing  being  <'one 
through,  after  they  have  arrived  to  a  suitable  size,  the  groiind  is  all 
harrowed  over;  and  they  are  then  to  be  gone  over  again,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  uncovering  those  which  the  harrow  may  have  covered :  this 
is  also  a  proper  time  for  thinning  them  where  they  are  too  thick — 
they  are  to  be  thinned  so  a»  to  stand  from  about  four  to  six  inches 
apart.  They  may,  however,  be  thinned  after  this,  when  they  have 
got  to  some  size;  and  then  those  which  are  pulled  out  may  be  given 
to  the  hogs,  as  they  are  very  fond  of  them,  and  will  readily  eat  both 
roots  and  tops.  As  soon  as  they  have  got  so  large  that  the  tops  will 
cover  the  ground,  they  will  stop  the  further  growth  of  weeds.  For 
neat  cattle  and  hogs  they  cannot  bo  too  large,  and  therefore  ought  to 
be  sown  as  early  as  the  fore  part  of  May  if  the  ground  and  season  v/ill 
iidmit;  they  will,  however,  do  very  well  when  sown  as  late  as  the 
latter  ead  of  May,  and  such  are  the  best  for  culinary  purposes. 

The  hoe  which  is  proper  for  working  among  them  is  the  garden 
hoe ;  it  must  be  sharp  for  cutting  weeds,  and  about  four  inches  wide ; 
aud  on  the  other  side  of  the  handle  is  fixed  four  small  prongs,  similar 
to  those  of  a  dung  fork,  for  the  purpose  of  stirring  up  the  ground. 

The  method  of  drilling,  or  soAving  in  rows,  would  be  much  the  best, 
v^ere  it  not  for  the  tediousness  of  the  operation  of  getting  the  seeds 
into  the  ground.  The  seed  must  be  dropped  into  the  rows  by  hand, 
unless  some  drill  machine  can  be  devised  by  which  to  commit  them 
to  the  earth  more  rapidly.  This,  probably,  might  be  done,  notwith- 
standing the  seeds  are  so  badly  shaped  for  that  purpose.  If  they 
were  first  rubbed  smartly  together,  so  as  to  make  them  of  rounder 
shape,  then  made  wet  with  lye  or  brine,  and  dried  with  gypsum,  and 
this  repeated  till  the  seeds  should  become  encrusted,  they  might  then 
probably  be  managed  successfully  in  a  small  hand  drill  machine, 
which  may  be  easily  contrived  for  the  purpose. 

The  first  hoeing  of  drill  rows,  after  ploughing  between  them,  re- 
quires considerable  hand  labor,  after  which  it  may  be  performed  al- 
most entirely  by  the  horse  hoe  or  cultivator.    (See  articles  Horse 


30  FAR.AIER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Hoe  and  Cultivator.)     The  rows  are  to  be  tbinDed,  so  thai  the 
carrots  when  grown  will  be  about  an  inch  apart. 

The  best  way  to  keep  carrots  through  the  winter  for  family  use,  is 
to  bury  them  in  dry  sand.  In  this  way,  they  may  also  be  kept  for 
feeding  out  to  horses,  hogs,  sheep,  6cc.  and  a  cellar  for  the  purpose 
might  be  made  in  a  side  hill,  covered  with  earth,  and  otherwise  forti- 
fied against  the  frost,  to  be  sufficiently  warm  for  that  purjwse. 

Many  farmers  in  G.  Britain,  where  farmers  in  general  understand 
the  means  of  making  the  most  of  their  lands  much  better  than  we  do, 
sow  yearij'  ten,  twenty,  thirty  acres  or  more,  of  carrots,  for  fatting 
cattle  or  swine,  &;c.  Such  are  the  farmers  that  grow  wealthy  there ; 
and  such  would  rapidly  acquire  wealth  here,  where  wealth  is  so  much 
more  easily  acquired. 

For  the  best  method  of  boiling  carrots  for  feeding  to  hogs,  «S:c.  see 
the  article  Swine. 

CATERPILLARS.     See  article  Insects. 

CATTLE.  See  articles  Ass,  Foals,  6cc.  Goats,  Horse,  Mares, 
Neat  Cattle,  Sheep  aod  Swine. 

CHANGE  OK  CROPS.  By  a  Judicious  change  of  crops  land  can 
be  yearly  applied  to  the  most  profitable  uses  of  which  it  is  susceptible. 
At  the  same  time  the  fowl  requisite  for  different  plants  being  sorae- 
ivhat  different  either  in  kind  or  quantity,  can  be  extracted  with  less 
injury  to  the  soil  where  the  extraction  is  equal — that  is,  where  by 
one  kind  of  crop  certain  given  quantities  or  kinds  are  extracted,  and 
different  quantities  or  kinds  by  another. 

Some  jdants  will  grow  yearly  on  the  same  soil;  others  again  will 
not.  Flax,  for  instance,  so  exhausts  that  fooolvhich  is  necessary  to 
produce  it,  that  it  will  not  grow  to  perfection  on  the  same  ground  of- 
tener  than  about  once  in  six  or  seven  years.  Wheat  sown  yearly  on 
the  same  ground  will  degenerate ;  and  perhaps  the  same  may  be  said 
of  oats  and  barley.  Rye,  on  the  contrary,  %vill  grow  yearly  for  twen- 
ty years  or  more  on  the  same  soil,  without  materially  injuring  it.  Corn 
will  also  grow  yearly,  but  it  greatly  exhausts  the  soil.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  buckwheat.  Potatoes,  carrots,  parsnips,  beets,  and 
perhaps  all  kinds  of  grasses,  require  little  or  no  change  of  soil,  and  do 
not  materially  exhaust  it. 

The  propriety  of  changing  crops  arises  partly  from  convenience 
and  partly  from  necessity.  When  we  have  raised  a  crop  of  [jotatoes, 
for  instance,  we  know  that  we  can  raise  a  succeeding  crop  equally 
good  on  the  same  ground.  But  here  we  study  convenience;  we  want 
to  raise  a  crop  of  flax  or  barley,  and  this  ground  is  the  best  prepared 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  31 

for  such  purpose,  while  at  the  same  time  another  piece  will  do  equal- 
ly well  for  potatoes.  On  the  other  hand,  Avhen  we  have  raised  the 
crop  of  flax,  we  are  under  the  necessity  of  taking  another  piece  of 
ground  for  the  next  crop ;  and  for  the  same  reasons  we  change,  year- 
ly, the  greunds  on  which  we  raise  our  wheat,  oats  and  barley.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  properly  said  that  changing  crops  is  partly  a  matter 
of  convenience  and  partly  of  necessity,  and  that  these  two  causes 
combining  serve  to  give  a  direction  to  that  course  of  cropping  which 
no  good  farmer  will  resist. 

But  though  a  change  of  crops  is  in  general  the  best  management, 
it  is  not  such  in  every  case.  If  we  have  got  a  piece  of  ground  well 
fitted  for  raising  carrots,  and  we  find  the  culture  of  these  more  profit- 
able than  any  thing  else  we  can  apply  to  that  ground,  it  would  not  be 
advisable  to  apply  it  to  a  less  profitable  culture,  and  be  at  the  trouble 
of  fitting  another  piece  of  ground  for  raising  this  root ;  unless  it  should 
be  found  that  the  ground  became  exhausted  for  its  culture,  and  that 
a  change  was  on  that  account  necessary.  The  same  may  be  observ- 
ed with  respect  to  the  culture  of  onions,  parsnips,  beets,  <S:c. 

The  best  changes  of  crops  must  depend  much  on  the  soil.  In  a 
fertile  sand,  sandy  loam,  gravelly  loam,  or  other  dry  warm  soil,  it  is 
as  well  to  begin  the  first  year  with  corn  and  potatoes,  or  perhaps  po- 
tatoes alone,  first  ploughing  in  all  the  barn  dung  made  that  Spring ; 
the  second  year  corn,  which  will  then  receive  the  greatest  benefit 
from  the  rotten  dung  and  the  previously  fermented  state  of  the  soil ; 
the  third  year,  barley,  and  clover  sown  with  it ;  the  fourth,  clover ; 
the  fifth,  clover,  one  crop,  and  then  the  sward,  after  the  clover  has 
grown  considerably  again,  well  turned  over,  and  harrowed  in  with 
wheat;  the  sixth,  wheat,  sown  as  before  mentioned,  with  clover;  the 
seventh  and  eighth,  clover;  and  then  the  sward  torn  up  again  in  the 
fall  for  potatoes  the  next  year. 

If  the  lands  are  a  cold  loam  or  clay,  which  are  too  wet  for  wheat, 
I  should  advise  to  break  up  in  the  fall,  and  in  the  Spring  cart  on  all 
the  barn  dung,  and  plough  it  iu  well,  and  harrow  the  ground ;  then 
plant  it  with  potatoes  in  rows,  on  the  top  of  the  ground,  about  four 
feet  apart.  When  the  potatoes  are  laid,  a  light  furrow  run  close  along 
each  side  of  the  rows  will  cover  them.  When  they  have  got  to  a  pro- 
per height,  run  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  rows,  turning  it  against 
them,  and  complete  the  dressing  Avith  the  hoe.  In  due  season  give 
them  another  such  dressing.  By  this  time  the  earth  forming  the  rows 
will  be  thrown  up  so  hi-'-h  !hat  it  must  be  sufficiently  dry  and  have 
every  chance  of  producing  the  greatest  degree  of  fermentation,  and 


32  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

of  course  will  afford  the  best  chance  to  produce  as  good  a  crop  of  [ki 
tatoes  as  such  soil  is  capable  of  producing. 

When  the  potatoes  are  dug,  which  may  be  chiefly  performed  liy  the 
plough  beiDg  run  through  the  ron^s,  first  on  each  side  and  then  in  the 
middle,  throw  up  the  ground  again  in  high  ridges  of  two  furrows  on 
each  side,  and  so  let  it  lie  during  the  winter.  The  next  Spring  plough 
it  all  level  at  first,  and  harrow  it  fine,  then  ridge  it  again  by  throwing 
up  two  furrows  against  each  other,  at  the  distance  of  four  feet  apart, 
and  |)laut  your  Indian  corn  on  the  tops  of  the  ridges;  aud  then  with 
proper  attention  in  ploughing  and  hoeing  it,  when  the  ground  is  not 
too  wet,  a  good  crop  of  Indian  corn  may  be  raised  on  ground,  which, 
when  planted  in  the  cold  unferniented  state  of  the  soil,  and  receiving 
DO  immediate  assistance  from  the  crude  state  of  the  barn  dung,  would 
scarcely  produce  a  crop  worth  gathering. 

After  the  corn  is  taken  ofl*,  by  again  ridging  the  hind  for  the  winter 
frosts,  and  then  levelling  it  in  the  Spring,  and  ploughing  it  well  in  dry 
times,  you  may  fit  the  soil  for  a  good  crop  of  oats,  or  perhaps  barley 
or  summer  wheat,  if  the  lands  lie  in  the  more  northerly  part  of  this 
state.  With  this  crop  it  must  be  seeded  down — not  with  clover,  for 
this  will  winter-kill  in  such  soils — but  with  herdsgrass,  which  it  will 
produce  well  for  several  years.  After  this  grass  has  failed,  tear  up 
the  sward,  and  go  through  the  same  process  of  culture  again.  This, 
or  something  similar,  is  about  all  the  change  of  crops  that  can  be  had 
to  any  advantage  on  such  lands. 

Such  lands,  by  being  hollow  drained,  become  dry  enough  for  wheat 
and  clover,  and  are  then  generally  excellent  for  cultivation.  Far- 
mers, therefore,  whose  lands  are  all  of  this  description,  ought  to  com- 
mence hollow  draining,  and  as  they  progress  they  will  find  themselves 
enabled  to  raise  crops  of  wheat  superior  to  those  which  are  raised  on 
soils  naturally  dry.     {See  article  Hollow  Drains.) 

There  are  other  courses  of  crops  that  may  be  most  suitable  for  dif- 
ferent soils,  and  perhaps  variations  may  be  made  to  advantage  in 
each;  all  of  which  are  calculated  to  exercise  the  judgment  and  skill 
of  the  experienced  farmer. 

CHANGE  OF  SEEDS.  Most  plants  are  found  to  degenerate  to 
a  certain  degree,  unless  their  seeds  are  frequently  changed.  This 
has  been  attributed  to  their  cultivation  in  climates  where  they  are 
not  indigenous.  But  this  can  hardly  be  the  sole  reason ;  for  it  is 
found  that  most  plants  will  be  improved  by  having  the  seeds  brought 
from  the  east  to  the  west,  and  vice  versa. 


FARMER*S  ASSISTANT.  33 

Providence,  in  making  so  large  a  world  as  this,  seems  to  have  de- 
signed that  there  should,  nevertheless,  be  a  common  acquaintance 
among  the  nations  which  inhabit  it.  They  are  invited  abroad  for 
conveniences  which  their  own  climates  do  not  furnish;  they  are  im- 
pelled to  a  general  intermixture,  from  a  knowledge  that  it  is  benefi- 
cial ;  and  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  a  change  of  seeds  are  pro° 
bably  only  in  furtherance  of  the  general  design  of  a  community  among 
nations.  * 

But  we  are  as  yet  much  in  the  dark  as  it  respects  the  best  changes 
of  seeds,  and  from  what  parts  of  the  world  they  should  be  brought,  to 
prothice  the  greatest  crops.  Ought  not  this  to  become  a  matter  of 
more  general  concern  ?  The  Irish  farmers  sow  our  flaxseed,  and  find 
great  account  in  it.  Would  their  flaxseed  be  equally  beneficial  when 
sown  here  ?  I  have  known  flaxseed  brought  from  Long-Island  and 
sown  in  Orange  county,  which  produced  nearly  double  the  crop  which 
the  common  seed  there  produced.  Spring  wheat  brought  from  Cana- 
da and  sown  Irere,  (Herkimer  county)  greatly  enhances  the  crop,  but 
soon  degenerates,  Siberian  wheat  yielded  largely  in  this  country 
for  a  while.  The  seeds  of  apples  brought  from  Europe  will  produce 
trees  larger  than  our  own.  For  roofs  it  is  generally  supposed  that 
seeds  brought  from  a  more  southerly  climate  are  best.  Indian  corn 
brought  far  from  that  quarter  will  be  in  danger  of  ripening  too  late  ; 
that  brought  far  from  the  north  will  ripen  too  early  for  a  large  crop. 
On  the  whole,  the  farmer  should  make  his  changes  as  judiciously  as 
possible,  and  in  most  instances  he  will  then  find  the  product  of  his 
crops  greatly  increased. 

CHEESE.  For  making  this  article  take  the  following  directions  : 
Make  your  milk  blood  warm,  and  put  in  your  ruunet,  but  no  more 
than  will  just  make  the  curd  come.  Add  an  once  of  fine  salt  to  so 
much  curd  as  will  make  a  cheese  of  fifteen  pounds,  and  in  that  pro- 
portion for  a  greater  or  less.  Stir  the  curd  till  it  is  gathered  ;  put  it 
in  a  strainer,  and  with  your  hands  work  out  all  the  whey  ;  then  lay  it 
in  a  clean  linen  cloth,  put  it  in  the  hoop,  and  covering  it  with  the 
cloth,  put  it  in  the  press,  and  let  it  stand  tlierc  two  hours;  then  take 
it  out,  rub  it  over  with  fine  salt,  put  it  in  another  dry  cloth,  and  put 
it  in  the  press  eight  hours ;  then  take  it  out  again,  put  it  in  another 
dry  cloth,  and  put  it  in  the  press  again,  where  it  is  to  remain  till  the 
next  cheese  is  ready.  When  taken  out  of  the  press,  put  if  in  brine 
twenty-four  hours,  and  let  the  brine  have  as  much  salt-petre  in  it  as 
will  lie  on  a  shilling.  Some  little  additions  of  salt  and  salt-petre  must 
be  occasionally  made  to  the  brine,  and  let  it  be  cleansed  as  often  as 

5 


M  far:\ier'S  assistant. 

necessary,  by  heating  it  and  taking  off  the  scum.  When  you  take 
the  cheese  out,  dry  it  uilh  a  cloth  ;  bind  it  round  with  a  long  siring 
to  make  it  keep  its  shape,  w  hich  must  be  kept  round  it  for  some  days, 
and  let  it  be  daily  turned  on  the  shelf  for  two  months. 

Let  the  evening  milk  be  put  with  that  of  the  morning ;  and  to  make 
the  best  cheeses,  let  none  of  the  cream  be  taken  away.  If  the  even- 
ing milk,  however,  be  skimmed,  and  added  to  that  of  the  morning,  it 
will  make  tolerable  clfeeee.  Skim-milk  cheeses  are  also  made,  but 
they  are  not  worth  much. 

But  no  good  cheese  can  be  made  unless  the  runnet  be  good.  See 
article  Ri  nnet. 

The  room  where  cheeses  are  to  be  kept  for  drying  should  be  dark, 
to  keep  out  flies ;  and  to  prevent  these  from  depositing  their  eggs  in 
the  cracks  of  the  cheeses,  let  them  be  smeared  over  with  a  mixture 
of  salt  butter  and  tar.  To  give  them  a  line  colour,  let  a  little  annatto 
be  put  in  the  milk;  this  is  harmless — but  beware  of  colouring  them 
with  any  thing  that  is  poisonous. 

CHURN.  The  best  chum  is  the  oblong  square,  which  is  turned 
on  two  pivots  by  a  crank.  The  pivots  are  not  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  two  ends ;  but  one  is  placed  at  one  side  of  the  end,  and  the 
other  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  other  end,  so  that  the  churn  is  sus- 
pended diagonally  on  the  pivots.  This,  when  it  is  turned,  gives  the 
milk  a  violent  motion  from  one  end  of  the  churn  to  the  other,  while 
at  the  same  time  it  turns  very  easily.  The  churn  ought  to  be  about 
of  the  following  proportions :  One  that  is  three  feet  long  ought  to  be 
one  foot  wide  one  way,  and  about  nine  inches  wide  the  other  way,  so 
as  to  form  &Jiat  oblong  square.  The  pivots  are  made  of  iron,  and  are 
livetted  on  the  outside.  A  square  hole  is  made  on  one  side  for  letting 
in  the  nnlk  and  taking  out  the  butter;  and  a  square  piece  is  made  ex- 
actly fitted  to  fill  up  the  hole,  which  is  fastened  down  to  its  place  by  a 
little  iron  bar  across  it,  with  staples  at  each  end. 

Oak  is  generally  preferred  lor  churns,  as  pine  is  apt  to  communi- 
cate something  of  its  taste  to  the  butter. 

CIDER.  To  make  the  best  cider  there  are  several  requisites. — 
The  apples  should  be  of  one  sort,  and  of  the  best  kind.  They  should 
be  perfectly  sound,  ripe  and  clean.  Those  which  are  shook  Irom  the 
trees  by  a  gentle  shaking  are  best;  and  all  knotty,  wormy  and  rotte» 
ones  should  be  rejected.  Such  as  are  not  of  this  prime  rate  may  be 
made  into  common  cider. 

Let  the  apples  thus  selected  he  spread  on  a  floor,  raised  from  the 
ground,  with  a  cover  over  it,  and  the  sides  enclosed.     Here  they  are 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  3.5 

to  lie  for  the  purpose  of  sweating,  by  which  their  more  watery  parts 
are  thrown  ofiF.  Let  them  lie  here  about  tour  or  five  days  when  the 
weather  is  dry  and  warm,  but  longer  when  wet  and  cool,  and  let 
them  then  be  dried,  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  ground  immediately 
in  a  clean  mill.  Some  prefer  having  the  seeds  broken  in  grinding,  aa 
imparting  a  more  agreeable  taste  to  the  cider.  Let  the  vessels  which 
receive  the  cider  be  perfectly  sweet  and  clean,  for  without  this  the 
best  juice  will  be  spoiled.  New  casks,  or  those  which  have  just  been 
emptied  of  brandy,  are  tlie  best.  The  manufacturers  of  wine  take 
great  pains  to  have  their  casks  clean,  and  commence  the  cleansing 
for  months  before  they  are  to  be  used. 

For  cleansing  casks,  let  them  be  first  washed  perfectly  clean,  after 
they  are  emptied  of  cider,  and  bunged  up  tight.  Before  they  are  to 
be  used  again,  take  at  the  rate  of  a  pint  or  more  of  unslacked  lime 
for  a  barrel,  put  it  in,  and  pour  in  three  or  four  gallons  of  hot  water, 
or  more  for  a  larger  cask ;  shake  it  well,  and  while  the  lime  is  slack- 
ing give  it  some  vent,  lest  it  burst  the  cask.  Let  it  stand  till  cooled, 
and  then  rinse  it  with  cold  water.  If  it  still  has  any  sour  smell,  re- 
peat the  operation  till  it  smells  perfectly  sweet.  The  effect  of  this 
is,  that  the  lime  destroys  all  the  acidity  which  may  be  in  the  cask. 

The  first  and  the  last  running  of  a  cheese  should  be  put  in  a  cask 
by  itself,  as  it  is  not  so  good  as  the  rest.  In  pouring  the  cider  into 
the  cask,  let  there  be  a  strainer  of  coarse  cloth  in  the  bottom  of  the 
funnel  to  keep  out  the  pumace.  After  the  casks  are  filled,  the 
next  process  is  the  fermentation,  and  this  is  a  matter  of  some  nice- 
ty- 
There  are  three  fermentations — the  vinous,  the  acid,  and  the  pu- 
trid.  When  the  first  ceases  the  second  begins,  and  when  that  ceases 
the  third  begins.  The  first  is  only  necessary  for  cider,  and  care  must 
be  taken  to  stop  all  further  fermentation  as  soon  as  this  is  over.  This 
is  known  by  the  liquor  ceasing  to  throw  up  little  bubbles  to  the  top. 
Then  too  all  the  pumace  is  raised  up,  and  if  suffered  to  remain  there, 
will  again  sink  to  the  bottom  and  render  the  liquor  turbid.  Let  this 
time  then  be  carefully  observed,  and  let  the  liquor  then  be  drawn  off, 
not  too  closely,  and  put  into  other  clean  casks,  or  bottled,  and  closed 
tight,  and  set  away  in  a  cool  cellar.  Let  a  gallon  of  French  brandy 
be  added  to  every  barrel. 

But  to  further  improve  it,  let  it  undergo  a  further  operation,  as  fol- 
lows :  As  you  draw  off  the  cider  from  the  first  casks,  put  it  into  f^esh 
ones,  filling  each  about  three  quarters  full,  and  set  them  away  tilt 
winter ;  at  which  time  let  them  be  exposed  to  the  frost*  latU  one  half, 


36  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

or  even  two  thirds  of  the  contents  of  each  are  froien  ;  give  the  liquor 
some  vent  while  freezing;  draw  off  the  unfrozen  part,  hottle  it,  or  put 
it  in  clean  new  casks,  and  set  it  awaj'  in  a  cool  cellar,  and  let  it  re- 
main there  for  two  or  three  years,  and  it  will  then  nearly  equal  the 
best  wines. 

If  it  should  require  clarifying,  let  it  be  done  with  isinglass ;  or  it 
may  be  leached  through  a  tub  of  powdered  charcoal,  which  will  ren- 
der it  very  clear ;  but  the  tub  should  be  covered  close  to  prevent  any 
evaporation  of  the  spirit.  To  clarify  it  with  isinglass,  pour  into  each 
vessel  about  a  pint  of  the  infusion  of  about  sixty  grains  of  the  most 
transparent  of  this  glue  in  a  little  white  wine  and  rain  or  river  water, 
stirred  well  together,  after  being  strained  through  a  linen  cloth. 
This  viscous  substance  spreads  over  the  surface  of  the  liquor,  and  car- 
ries all  the  dregs  with  it  to  the  bottom. 

Some  boil  cider  in  the  spring,  for  summer  use;  but  the  practice  is 
a  very  bad  one,  particularly  when  boiled  in  brass  kettles.  If  any 
boiling  be  ever  proper  for  cider,  it  must  be  as  it  comes  from  the  press. 
This  is  the  proper  method  of  treating  water  cider,  or  that  which  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  pumace  after  the  cheese  has  been  pressed.  The 
puniace  is  put  into  casks  in  the  evening,  with  a  due  proportion  of 
warm  water  thrown  on  it,  and  in  the  morning  it  is  made  into  a  cheese, 
and  pressed  off  again,  the  liquor  is  then  to  be  boiled  till  all  the  scum 
has  risen  and  been  skimmed  off,  and  then  it  is  to  be  put  away  in  casks 
in  a  cool  cellar,  and  treated  like  other  cider.  It  ferments  but  little, 
and  makes  a  pleasant  drink  for  the  next  summer,  if  bottled,  or  other- 
wise kept  well.  Perhaps  this  would  be  a  good  method  of  treating  all 
cider. 

Cider  may  be  kept  for  years  in  casks  without  fermenting,  by  bury- 
ing them  deeply  under  ground,  or  immersing  them  in  spring  water; 
and  when  taken  up  the  cider  will  be  very  fine. 

A  drink  called  cider-royal,  is  made  of  the  best  running  of  the 
cheese,  well  clarified,  with  six  or  eight  gallons  of  French  brandy,  or 
good  cider  brandy,  added  to  a  barrel ;  let  the  vessel  be  filled  full, 
bunged  tight,  and  set  in  a  cool  cellar,  and  in  the  course  of  a  twelve- 
month will  be  a  fine  drink.  If  good  rectified  whiskey  be  used,  in- 
stead of  brandy,  it  will  answer  very  well. 

A  quart  of  honey,  or  molasses,  and  a  quart  of  brandy,  or  other  spi- 
rits, added  to  a  barrel  of  cider  will  improve  the  liquor  ver)'  much,  and 
will  restore  that  which  has  become  too  flat  and  insipid.  To  prevent 
its  becoming  pricked,  or  to  cure  it  when  it  is  so,  put  a  little  pearl-ash- 
f  B,  or  other  mild  alkali,  into  the  cask.     A  lump  of  chalk  broken  ia 


FARMER^S  ASSISTANT.  37 

pieces,  and  thrown  in,  is  also  good.  Salt  of  tartar,  where  the  cider 
is  about  to  be  used,  is  also  recommended. 

To  refine  cider,  and  give  it  a  fine  amber  colour,  the  following  me- 
thod is  much  approved  of.  Take  the  whites  of  six  eggs,  with  a  hand« 
ful  of  fine  beach  sand,  washed  clean,  stir  them  well  together ;  then 
boil  a  quart  of  molasses  down  to  a  candv,  and  cool  it  by  pouring  in 
cider,  and  put  this,  together  with  the  eggs  and  sand,  into  a  barrel  of 
cider,  and  mix  the  w  hole  well  together.  When  thus  managed  it  will 
keep  for  many  years.  Molasses  alone  will  also  refine  cider,  and  give 
it  a  higher  color,  but  to  prevent  the  molasses  making  it  prick,  let  an 
equal  quantity  of  brandy  be  added  to  it.  Skim-milk,  with  some  lime 
slacked  in  it,  and  mixed  with  it,  or  with  the  white  of  eggs  ^-ith  the 
shells  broken  in,  is  also  good  for  clarifying  all  liquors,  when  well  mix- 
ed with  them.  A  piece  of  fresh  bloody  meat  put  into  the  cask,  ^vill 
also  refine  the  liquor  and  serve  for  it  to  feed  on. 

To  prevent  the  fermentation  of  cider,  let  the  cask  be  first  strongly 
fumigated  with  burnt  sulphur,  then  put  in  some  of  the  cider,  burn  more 
sulphur  in  the  cask,  stop  it  tight,  and  shake  the  whole  up  together  ; 
fill  the  cask,  bung  it  tight,  and  put  it  away  in  a  cool  cellar. 

To  bring  on  a  fermentation,  take  three  pints  of  yeast  for  a  hogs- 
head, add  as  much  jalup  as  will  lie  on  a  sixpence,  mix  them  with 
some  of  the  cider,  beat  the  mass  up  till  it  is  frothy,  then  pour  it  into 
the  cask,  and  stir  it  up  well.  Keep  the  vessel  full,  and  the  bung  open, 
for  the  froth  and  foul  stuff  to  work  out.  In  about  fifteen  days  the 
froth  will  be  clean  and  white ;  then,  to  stop  the  fermentation,  rack 
the  cider  off  into  a  clean  vessel,  add  two  gallons  of  brandy,  or  well 
rectified  whiskey  to  it,  and  bung  it  up.  Let  the  cask  be  full,  and 
keep  the  vent  hole  open  for  a  day  or  two.  By  this  process,  cider  that 
is  poor  and  ill  tasted,  may  be  wonderfully  improved.  Let  it  be  re= 
fined  by  some  of  the  methotls  before  described. 

To  cure  oily  cider,  take  one  ounce  of  salt  of  tartar,  and  two  and  a 
half  of  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  in  a  gallon  of  milk,  for  a  hogshead.  To 
cure  ropy  cider,  take  six  pounds  of  powdered  allum  and  stir  it  into  a 
hogshead ;  then  rack  it  off  and  clarify  it. 

To  colour  cider,  take  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  sugar,  burnt  black,  and 
dissolved  in  half  a  pint  or  hot  water,  for  a  hogshead,  add  a  quarter  of 
an  ounce  of  allum  to  set  the  colour. 

Cider-brandy  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  honey,  or  clarified 
sugar,  b  much  recommended  by  some  for  improving  common  cider; 
so  that,  when  refined,  it  may  be  made  as  strong,  and  as  pleasant  as  the 
most  of  wines. 


3a  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Cider  has  beeo  made  in  Great-Britain,  of  such  superior  quality  as  to 
command  a  price  of  sixty  guineas  a  hogshead.  If  such  can  he  made 
there,  it  can  also  be  made  here,  where  our  climate  in  general  is  mor« 
favorable  for  the  production  of  apples  of  the  best  qualities. 

CLAY.  The  basis  of  this  earth  is  alumine.  A  quality  peculiar 
to  clay  is,  that  by  reason  of  its  alumine,  it  contracts  when  dried  or 
heated,  and  expands  again  when  moistened.  A  clayey  soil  therefore 
is  always  to  be  known  bj'  its  cracking  open  in  dry  weather;  and  the 
more  clayey,  the  wider  will  be  these  openings. 

AVhere  the  soil  is  very  clayey,  and  at  the  same  time  wet,  it  is  worth 
but  little  for  the  plough,  though  it  may  be  good  for  mowing,  or  pas- 
ture ;  but  if  the  adhesion  of  the  soil  be  destroyed  by  proper  manures, 
and  it  be  laid  dry  by  hollow  draining,  it  then  becomes  a  fine  soil  for 
most  productions. 

See  articles  Manures,  and  Hollow  Drains. 

Some  nicety  is  requisite  as  to  the  proper  time  for  ploughing  this 
ground.  If  it  be  too  dry  it  will  not  crumble;  an<l  if  too  wet,  the 
ploughing  will  only  render  it  more  compact.  The  hard  clods  are  ea- 
siest mellowed  by  the  plough  after  they  have  been  merely  wet 
through  with  a  gentle  rain. 

See  further  article  Earths. 

CLEARING  OF  LANDS.  But  little  need  be  said  on  this  sub- 
ject, as  he  who  has  to  undertake  the  clearing  new  lands  will  acquire 
more  knowledge  from  practice  of  the  best  methods  of  subduing  our 
heavy  forests,  than  from  any  essay  on  the  subject.  He  will  find  that 
the  essential  point  is  to  put  his  shoulder  to  the  wheel,  and  persevere 
undauntedly;  and  in  a  few  years  he  will  find  his  exertions  amply 
compensated  by  the  pleasing  scenes  and  profitable  improvements 
which  shall  have  been  made  around  his  dwelling. 

When  new  settlers  first  go  into  the  wooils,  they  have  to  spend 
much  valuable  time  in  hunting  up  their  oxen  and  milch  cows,  w  hich, 
for  want  of  an  enclosed  pasture,  have  to  run  in  the  woods;  and  to  re- 
medy this  as  soon  as  possible,  I  would  propose  the  following  :  About 
the  first  of  June,  take  a  suitable  piece  of  ground,  cut  out  the  bushes, 
and  all  thr  small  growth  of  timber  which  shall  be  under  a  certain  size, 
Bay  a  foot  over  at  the  but;  pile  all  the  brush  round  those  trees  which 
are  left  standing.  In  a  dry  time,  in  the  month  of  August,  set  fire  to 
thcra,  and  the  fires  will  kill  the  trees  left  standing ;  then  pile  and  burn 
what  lies  on  the  ground,  which  is  soon  done,  and  in  due  season  har- 
row in  a  crop  of  wheat  or  rye,  and  in  the  following  spring  sow  the 
"round  over  with  herdsgrass.     The  crop  of  wheat  or  rye,  sown  in  this 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  ^9 

way,  will  be  nearly  as  good  as  if  the  timber  were  all  taken  off;  and 
the  year  following  the  ground  will  afford  the  requisite  supply  of  pas- 
ture and  hay.  When  the  limbs  of  the  standing  trees  begin  to  rot  and 
fall  off,  cut  the  whole  down,  and  let  them  lie  there  ;  as  the  pasture 
will  not  be  injured,  but  rather  eventually  benefitted,  by  the  trees  ly- 
ing and  rotting  upon  it.  This  method  of  killing  trees  by  fire,  is  how- 
ever, only  recommended  where  they  are  such  as  cannot  be  killed  by 
girdling ;  such  as  beach,  maple,  bass-wood,  &c. 

New  settlers,  who  will  take  this  method  of  providing  a  supply  of 
pasture  and  hay,  will  always  find  their  account  in  two  ways ;  it  is 
turning  the  grounds  to  immediate  profit,  with  the  least  possible  ex- 
pense ;  and  the  surplus  of  hay  and  pasture  will  demand  an  extra 
price;  as  those  articles  are  always  scarce  during  the  commencement 
of  new  settlements. 

CLIMATE.  All  seeds  are  to  be  planted,  or  sown,  at  such  time 
as  is  suitable  to  the  climate.  In  northerly  climates,  or  in  very  ele- 
vated situations,  the  spring  and  autumn  press  closer  upon  each  other, 
and  there  the  spring  crops  must  be  planted,  or  sown,  later,  and  the 
fall  crops  earlier  than  in  more  temperate  climates.  The  right  time 
for  planting  and  sewing,  must,  therefore,  be  ascertained  by  the  judg- 
ment of  the  farmer,  founded  on  due  experience,  and  a  knowledge  of 
the  climate  in  which  he  lives. 

Climate  depends  greatly  on  altitude  as  well  as  latitude.  This  is  no 
where  more  strikingly  exemplified  than  on  the  sides  of  Mount  .Etna. 
When,  at  the  base  of  that  mountain,  the  peasants  are  reaping  their 
spring  crops,  on  its  highest  cultivable  parts  they  are  busied  in  sowing 
the  same  crops ;  and  at  its  extreme  point  of  elevation  is  perpetual 
winter.  The  highest  lauds  which  lie  between  the  Mohawk  and 
Black  river,  in  this  state,  are  not  fifty  miles  north  of  Albany  ;  yet  the 
climate  on  this  height,  is  at  least  six  degrees  of  latitude  colder  than 
at  that  city. 

From  a  knowledge  of  these  facts,  it  is  obvious,  that  the  same  pro- 
ductions will  not  thrive  equally  well  in  all  places,  under  the  same  de- 
gree of  latitude,  even  though  the  soil  be  the  same  ;  and,  knowing  this, 
it  becomes  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  regulate  his  system  of  farmin'^' 
accordingly. 

CLOVER;  fTrifolium  pretense.)  White  clover  is  a  very  fine 
grass,  affording  the  sweetest  pasture  and  hay,  but  the  product  is  too 
small,  when  compared  with  rod  clover,  which  is  nearly  as  swee^.  to  b*' 
worth  coltivatinsr. 


40  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

The  almost  universal  use  of  red  clover  upon  dry  upland  soils,  is,  it 
would  seem,  an  indication  of  its  superiority  over  most  other  grasses ; 
but,  it  certainly  never  can  be  made  to  yield  so  great  a  clear  profit  as 
Lucerne,  where  this  grass  is  cultivated  in  a  suitable  soil  and  climate. 

One  excellence  of  red  clover,  is,  that  it  is  the  only  grass  which  can 
with  advantage  be  turned  under  by  the  plough,  and  thus,  with  one 
ploughing  only,  ensure  a  good  crop  of  Avheat,  or  other  grain.  The 
crop,  however,  will  be  best  where  the  clover  is  mowed,  and  not  fed 
off  by  cattle.  Another  good  quality  is,  its  superiority  over  almost  all 
other  grasses,  in  mellowing  and  enriching  the  soil.  It  derives  most 
of  its  nourishment  from  a  considerable  depth,  and  like  all  tap-rooted 
plants,  it  exhausts  the  land  but  little,  while  at  the  same  time,  when 
ploughed  under,  it  forms  a  good  green  dressing  for  the  soil. 

Green  clover  is  a  good  food  for  swine  during  summer;  and  clover- 
hay,  when  boiled,  is  also  found  to  be  a  good  food  for  them  during  win- 
ter. Mr.  Livingston  makes  mention  of  a  farmer  at  Rhinebeck,  who 
fed  his  hogs  during  winter  with  no  other  food  but  boiled  clover,  and 
that  they  were  kept  in  good  condition.  The  clover  used  for  them 
was  preserved  by  being  salted,  a  quart  to  a  load.  It  was  cut  and  left 
in  win-rows  about  six  hours,  then  put  into  small  cocks.  The  next 
day,  about  noon,  these  were  opened;  towards  evening  they  were 
rode  home,  and  laid  away  with  salt,  which  kept  it  green  and  juicy  all 
the  year. 

See  further,  article  Swine. 

The  quantity  of  red  clover  seed,  to  be  sowed  to  the  acre,  is  about 
ten  pounds,  and  none  but  clean  seed  ought  to  be  sown. 

The  best  crops  with  which  to  sow  clover,  are  barley,  oats,  and 
spring  wheat.  It  is,  however,  frequently  sown  in  the  spring  on  win- 
ter wheat,  or  rye  ;  but  in  this  way  it  often  happens  that  the  seeds  do 
not  grow,  owing  to  their  not  being  covered.  This  difficulty  may, 
however,  be  obviated,  by  giving  the  ground  a  brushing,  by  dragging  a 
large  bunch  of  bushes,  tied  together,  over  it,  where  the  land  is  rough ; 
or  by  giving  it  a  light  harrowing  where  it  is  smooth  ;  either  of  which 
methods,  but  particularly  the  latter,  will  be  a  benefit  to  the  growth  of 
wheat  or  rye.  It  may  also  be  sown  with  winter  wheat,  or  rye,  in  the 
fall ;  but  there  is  danger  in  that  case  of  its  being  killed  by  the  suc- 
ceeding winter. 

Clover  yields  two  crops  in  the  season,  if  the  land  be  in  good  heart ; 
unless  it  be  in  the  northerly  parts  of  the  state,  where  the  second 
growth  will  generally  be  too  small  to  mow  to  advantage,  and  is,  there- 
fore, be^  to  be  fed  off. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  41 

When  you  wish  to  let  the  clover  go  to  seed,  take  the  second  crop ; 
or,  where  you  cannot  have  two  crops  in  a  season,  pasture  it  till  some 
time  in  IMay,  and  then  let  it  grow  up  to  seed,  which  will  of  course  be 
late.  The  reason  for  doing  this  is,  that  in  the  first  crop  in  each  sea- 
son, very  little  seed  is  to  be  found.  A  machine  has  been  invented 
for  gathering  the  seed,  which  runs  through  the  clover,  while  standing, 
somewhat  similar  to  a  comb  running  through  hair,  and  the  heads  are 
nipped  off  by  a  sharp  edge,  and  fall  into  a  box  made  for  the  purpose. 
Keeping  a  growth  of  clover  for  seed  injures  the  roots  more  than  mow- 
ing ;  and,  therefore,  the  seed  crop  ought  to  be  the  last  that  is  taken 
from  any  one  sowing.  Clover  is  only  a  biennial  plant ;  the  third  year 
the  crop  is  little  oruothing. 

Cattle,  when  first  tinned  into  a  luxuriant  clover-field,  either  of  white 
or  red,  sometimes  become  liovcn,  as  it  is  called  ;  that  is,  so  expanded 
with  wind  as  to  die,  unless  relief  be  afforded.  The  cure  for  this  con- 
sists simply  in  stabbing  them  with  a  sharp  pointed  knife,  with  a  blade 
three  or  four  inches  long,  between  the  hip  and  the  short  ribs,  where 
the  swelling  rises  highest.  This  Avil!  let  out  the  wind,  and  if  it  gathers 
again,  open  the  hole  afresh  with  the  knife,  and  repeat  this  as  often 
as  may  be  necessary.     The  v,  ound  will  soon  heal  of  itself. 

Sec  article  Grasses. 

COMPOSTS.     Sec  article  Maxcres. 

COWS.  The  marks  of  a  good  cow  are  these ;  the  forehead  broad, 
the  eyes  black,  the  horns  large  and  clean,  the  neck  long  and  straight, 
the  belly  large  and  decj),  the  thighs  thick,  the  legs  round  with  short 
joints,  and  the  feet  brond  and  thick.  Red  cows  are  said  to  give  the 
best  milk ;  though  the  black  ones  are  said  to  bring  the  best  calves, 
which  is,  however,  doubtful.  But  the  cow  that  gives  milk  the  longest 
lime  between  the  periods  of  her  calving,  is  generally  best  for  profit  or 
for  family  use ;  provided,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  her  milk  be  equal 
to  that  of  others.  Jiist  before  calving,  a  cow  should  be  well  fed;  and 
if  she  calves  in  winter,  her  drink  should  be  a  little  warmed  for  a  day 
and  night  afterwards.  If  she  does  not  clean  well  after  calving,  give 
her  a  pail  of  warm  water,  with  some  ashes  in  it.  Those  that  calve 
pretty  early  Avill  yield  most  milk  in  the  season. 

The  times  of  milking  oii;i;ht  to  be  regular,  and  as  nearly  equi-distant 
as  possible.  "Where  the  iVeding  is  fnll,  it  is  found  that  milking  three 
times  a  day,  during  the  simnner  seavon  particularly,  will  increase  the 
quantity  nearly  one  third.  In  that  citse,  the  first  milking  ought  to  be 
by  sunrise,  the  second  about  one,  and  the  latter  about  seven  or  eight 
o'clock  in   Ibe  evening.     Omitting  to  milk  cows  regularly,  at  least 


42  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

twice  a  day,  tends  very  much  to  dry  them.  Sometimes  one  or  more 
teats  of  a  cow  may  be  diseased,  but  this  does  not  affect  the  milk  ol  the 
rest. 

Cows  are  certainly  rcry  profitable.  Allow ingj  one  to  give  only 
six  quarts  a  day,  for  forty  weeks  in  each  year,  and  this  is  not  a  large 
allowance,  her  milk,  at  two  cents  per  quart,  will  amount  to  upward* 
of  thirty-three  dollars ;  which  is  probably  sufiBcient  to  purchase  her, 
and  pay  for  a  year's  keeping. 

See  further  articles.  Cattle,  Cbeam,  Dairy,  &c. 

CRAB- APPLE-TREE;  (Pyrus  Coronaria.J  This  is  a  genuine 
and  distinct  species  of  the  apple  ;  it  grows  in  all  parts  of  North- Ame- 
rica which  have  been  explored,  from  the  Atlantic  as  far  west  as 
the  Rlissisippi :  its  blossoms  are  remarkably  fragrant ;  its  fruit  EmaTT^ 
possessing,  perhaps,  of  all  others,,  the  keenest  acid.  It  makes  an  ex- 
cellent vinegar,  and  the  eider  made  from  it  is  much  admired  by  those 
who  profess  to  be  connoisseurs  in  that  article.  The  European  crab- 
apple  is  a  very  different  fruit  from  this. 

There  are  no  varieties  of  fruit  of  the  crab-apple  tree.  Every  tree 
bears  nearly  equally  well  and  pretty  plentifully.  It  is  believed,  that 
this  fruit  is  well  worth  cultivating. 

CREAM.  Fans,  or  trays,  for  holding  milk,  to  raise  the  most  cream, 
ought  to  be  broad  and  shallow,  and  the  milk  in  them  ought  not  to  b^ 
more  than  three  or  four  inches  in  depth.  Tin  and  wood  are  the  best 
materials  for  making  these.  Some  line  wooden  trays  wilh  lead  ;  but 
this  is  a  bad  practice,  as  lead  may  sometimes  be  dissolved  by  the  acid 
of  the  milk,  and  then  it  is  poisonous.  Wooilen  trays  ought  to  be  well 
ecalded,  and  dried  in  a  cool  place,  as  often  as  new  milk  is  [)ut  in  them,  to 
prevent  the  wood  from  absorbing  too  much  of  the  acidity  of  the  milk, 
and  thus  coagulating  the  new  milk  before  the  cream  has  time  to  rise ; 
for  cream  will  not  rise  after  the  milk  has  become  coagulated. 

If  new  milk  be  kept  as  warm  as  when  it  comes  from  the  cow,  ao 
cream  will  rise  on  it ;  but  when  sufficiently  cooled,  the  cream  se|)a- 
rates  from  the  rest  and  rises  to  tlie  top.  In  order  then  to  effect  this 
to  the  best  advantage,  the  new  milk  should  be  made  as  cool  as  possi- 
ble, and  the  cooler  it  is  thus  made,  the  more  suddenly  and  effectually 
the  cream  will  rise.  The  cooler  the  cellars,  therefore,  in  which  milk 
18  kept,  the  better.  To  set  milk-pans,  made  of  tin,  in  beds  of  salt;, 
would,  no  doubt,  be  useful,  where  the  cellar  is  too  warm  ;  ami  to  set 
all  milk  vessels  on  a  floor  which  is  constantly  covered  wilh  cold 
sprine  water,  is  also  an  excellent  plan,  and  where  it  can  be  done, 
ought  never  to  be  omitted. 


FARMER^S  ASSISTANT.  43 

Most  of  the  cream  comes  last  from  the  cow  in  milking.  The  last 
hair  pint  of  milk  that  can  be  got,  by  milking  the  cow  dry,  contains  as 
oiuch  cream  as  the  first  quart,  or  perhaps  three  pints;  and  for  this 
reason,  cows  ought  always  to  be  milked  as  clean  as  possible.  The 
quantity  of  cream  will  also  be  greater,  if  the  milk  of  each  cow  be 
strained  into  a  pan  by  itself,  as  soon  as  possible.  The  practice  of 
pouring  the  milk  of  the  cows  together,  while  milking,  and  letting  the 
whole  stand  till  nearly  cooled,  is  a  very  bad  one,  as,  in  this  way,  much 
of  the  cream  will  not  afterwards  rise. 

CUCUMBER ;  (Qumcumis.)  These  are  a  cold  fruit  and  hard  of 
digestion,  yet  pleasant  to  the  taste.  They  are  rendered  more  whole- 
some by  pickling ;  though  the  taste  of  a  pickled  cucumber  must  be 
considered  far  inferior  to  those  which  are  fresh  when  properly  pre- 
pared for  eating.  This  is  best  done  by  slicing  them,  and  then  putting 
them  in  cold  water  for  a  while,  which  renders  them  more  easy  to 
digest. 

Cowper  in  his  "  Ta.'^^''  in  describing  the  method  of  raising  cucum- 
bers in  hot-beds,  directs  that  after  "  two  rough  indented  leaves"  are 
produced,  "  a  pimple  that  portends  a  future  sprout,"  on  *'  the  second 
stalk'*  is  to  be  pinched  otf,  to  prevent  its  growth ;  and  this,  he  says, 
Tvill  make  the  other  branches  grow  more  strong  and  be  more  prolific. 

The  soil  for  cucumbers  cannot  be  too  rich,  nor  too  well  cultivated, 
to  raise  a  great  crop.  A  spot  well  manured  with  fish,  or  other  flesh, 
will  produce  a  great  quantity.  Hog's-dung  is  also  very  good  for 
them. 

See  also  article  Radish,  for  a  good  manure  for  them. 

Take  a  tub  and  fill  it  half  full  of  stones,  and  with  as  much  water; 
over  this  lay  some  straw,  and  fill  the  tub  with  the  richest  earth ;  plant 
this  full  of  the  seeds,  and  guard  the  plants  well  while  they  are  subject 
to  insects,  though  they  will  be  much  less  subject  to  them  in  this  way ; 
epread  some  brush  round  the  tub  for  the  vines  to  run  on,  and  in  this 
way  a  great  crop  may  be  raised.  The  water  in  the  tub  must  be  ct-n- 
stantly  replenished  by  a  tube  from  the  outside,  which  will  keep  the 
soil  in  the  tub  sufficiently  moist  to  keep  off  insects  from  the  plants. 

See  article  Insects. 

CURRANT;  (Rihes.)  There  are  a  variety  of  currants,  including 
those  called  gooseberries.  {See  article  Gooseberrv.)  The  black 
currant,  which  grows  in  the  swamps  in  this  country,  is  greatly  im- 
proved by  cultivation,  says  i\lr.  Winterbotham,  and  affords  a  wine 
equal  to  Port  when  it  has  age.  It  is  also  an  excellent  medicine  lor  a 
s^re  mouth  and  throat.    When  bruised  and  steeped  in  whiskey,  or 


44  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

other  spirits,  it  is  also  excellent  for  colds  aiul  lor  bad  coughs  arising 
from  pulmonic  complaints.  They  arc  to  be  steeped  a  fortnight  or 
more,  then  strain  the  liquor,  bottle  it,  and  put  it  away  for  use.  The 
red  and  the  white  currants  are  most  common  here,  and  each  make 
good  wines,  though  the  white  is  thought  to  make  the  best.  Currants 
are  the  most  useful  of  all  the  small  kinds  of  fruit-trees,  and  for  making 
wines  they  are  very  profitable. 

After  pressing  out  the  juice  for  making  wine,  let  the  seeds  be  dried 
and  sown  late  in  the  fall,  or  early  in  the  spring,  on  line  light  earth, 
and  from  these,  new  varieties  maybe  had;  some  of  which  may  be 
found  very  fine  and  much  superior  [)erhaps  to  those  in  common  use. 
Some  may  be  found  to  ripen  early,  others  late,  which  are  qualities 
particularly  desirable  for  family  uses. 

Currants  are  easily  propagated  from  cuttings,  Avhich  is  the  usual 
method,  or  from  layers  or  slips. 
See  articles  Layers  and  Slips. 

As  soon  as  vegetation  has  commenced,  lake  the  strongest  and 
straightest  shoots,  but  not  such  as  are  suckers,  and  set  the  ends  pretty 
well  in  the  ground,  in  order  that  they  may  have  sufficient  moisture; 
and,  let  them  be  watered  if  the  weather  be  very  dry  after  planting. 
They  will  soon  take  root,  and  the  next  season  will  begin  to  bear. 
They  should  then  be  kept  carefully  pruned,  and  should  not  be  suffer- 
ed to  run  too  high.  They  should  be  kept  clear  of  suckers,  as  these 
draw  much  of  that  nourishment  which  is  requisite  for  the  fruit.  The 
ground  about  them  should  be  occasionally  hoed,  to  keep  it  clear  of 
weeds  and  grass. 

Currants  will  do  very  well  even  on  light  sandy  soils ;  but  perhaps, 
the  best  soil  for  them  is  a  good  mellow  sandy  loam.  With  proper  cul- 
ture, however,  they  will  grow  pretty  well  on  almost  any  soil  that  is 
not  too  hard  and  poor. 

Mr.  Forsyth  gives  some  very  minute  directions  for  pruning  currants, 
and  ap|)lying  his  composition  to  the  wounded  parts;  but  in  this  in- 
stance, as  in  some  others,  he  probably  carries  his  theories  to  extremes. 
Whatever  may  be  the  case  in  Groat-Britain,  Avhere  fruit  is  not  so 
easily  raised,  it  is  believed  that  the  above  general  directions,  if  pur- 
sued, will  ensure  good  cro|)s  of  currants  in  this  country,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  very  natural  (o  their  growth. 

To  make  Currant  Wine. — Take  currants  fully  ripe,  at  the  rate  of 
one  gnllon  for  each  gallon  of  water;  bruise  them  fine  in  the  water; 
strMiii  the  w  lole  throush  a  cloth,  and  a'ld  two  pounds  and  three  quar- 
ters of  good  brown  sugar  to  every  gallon  of  currants  and  water  thus 


FARi^lEK'S  ASSISTANT.  43 

mixed  together ;  stir  it  well,  and  when  the  sugar  has  dissolved,  put 
the  whole  into  a  clean  cask,  filling  it  full  and  leaving  a  good  vent  hole 
open.  When  the  lennentation  is  over,  stop  it  up  tight,  and  in  six 
months  it  will  be  fit  for  bottling  or  for  use.  Like  other  wines,  how- 
ever, it  improves  much  by  age. 

Probably  molasses,  well  clarified,  might  be  made  to  answer  instead 
of  sugar;  and,  probably,  honey,  or  a  due  mixture  of  it,  would  be  bet- 
ter than  either. 

An  acre  planted  with  currants,  and  well  cultivated,  Avould  proba- 
bly yield,  on  an  average,  a  quantity  of  fruit  sutficient  to  make  a  thou- 
sand gallons  of  wine  yearly.  The  expense  of  making  this  wine  does 
not  exceed  fifty  cents  a  gallon,  and  the  wine,  after  having  a  little  age, 
is  worth  treble  this  money. 

A  currant-garden  should  be  set  with  the  bushes  in  rows,  about 
eight  feet  between  each,  and  about  three  feet  between  each  bush, 
with  intervals  of  proper  Avidth  and  at  regular  distances  for  passing 
across  the  rows.  Planting  currants  on  the  south  side  of  a  wail  will 
make  them  ripen  more  early,  and  they  will  ripen  later  when  planted 
on  the  north  side. 

CUTTINGS.  These  are  twigs  of  trees  cut  off  and  set  into  the 
ground,  where  they  will  take  root  and  grow.  They  should  be  taken 
from  young  thrifty  trees. 

Cuttings  of  currants,  grape-vines,  willow,  Lonibardy  poplars,  &c. 
are  made  to  grow  without  any  difficulty  ;  those  of  quinces  are  not  so 
easy,  and  those  of  the  apple-tree  are  still  less  so.  Let  those  which 
are  most  difficult  to  grow  be  set  as  deep  as  twelve  inches;  those  less 
difficult  six,  eight,  or  ten,  as  the  kinds  may  require.  Let  them  be  cut 
and  set  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  vegetation  has  commenced,  and  per- 
haps earlier  than  this  is  best  for  those  which  are  most  difficult  to  ^roAv. 
Let  them  be  frequently  watered  when  the  ground  is  i\ry.  The  twi<^s 
used  for  this  purpose  should  be  of  good  straight  growth,  but  not  such  as 
are  suckers. 

Ai)ple-trees  raised  in  this  way  will  not  grow  so  large  as  those  raised 
from  the  seeds,  nor  will  they  be  so  long  lived ;  but  in  this  way  as  in 
grafting,  the  choicest  selections  of  fruit  can  be  made. 

Where  cuttings  are  to  be  kept  some  time  before  settino-  in  the 
ground,  let  the  cut  ends  be  kept  in  moist  earth  and  soaked  in  water 
before  they  are  set. 

Sec  further  article  Slips. 

Scions  :  Twigs  cut  oS'  for  grafting.  They  should  be  taken  from 
young  thrifty  trees,  but  not  from  sprouts  or  suckers.     Let  them  be  of 


46  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  ends  of  limbs  of  the  former  year's  growth.  Cut  them  just  before 
the  buds  begin  to  swell,  aod  keep  them  in  a  moist  place  with  the  cat 
ends  in  moist  earth  till  the  time  of  grafting. 


D. 


DAIRY.  The  business  of  the  dairy  requires  close  attention.  The 
miikiugs,  in  order  to  be  most  profitable,  should  be  three  times  a  day  ; 
the  first  at  ilay-light ;  the  second  at  noon ;  and,  the  latter  at  twilight. 
This  will  very  considerably  increase  the  quantity  of  milk  given  in  a 
day  from  any  num'»er  of  cows. 

In  order  to  ascertain  which  cow's  milk  is  the  best,  as  yielding  the 
most  cream,  let  ihe  milk  of  each  be  put  by  itself,  and  their  products  of 
butter  will  then  determine  the  point.  The  quantity  of  milk  afforded 
by  each  should  also  be  taken  into  consideration. 

See  further  articles,  Bltter,  Cheese,  Cirrn,  Cows,  Cream, 
Neat  Cattle. 

Dr.  Anderson  recommends  wooden  vessels  as  being  the  most  whole- 
some for  holding  milk ;  but  that  if  tin  pans  be  used,  they  should  be 
washed,  every  time  they  are  emptied,  with  warm  water  in  which  a  lit- 
tle salt  has  been  dissolved,  and  should  be  kept  clean  by  scouring  ;  and 
to  prevent  acidity  in  wooden  vessels  they  should  in  like  manner  be 
scoured  and  cleansed  with  hot  water.  Leaden  vessels  he  condemns, 
as  is  menlionetl  under  article  Butter. 

The  dairy  requires  two  apartments — a  clean  cool  room  in  the  cellar 
lor  the  milk,  and  »  dark  room  above  ground  for  drying  and  keeping 
the  cheese.  Many  farmers,  however,  confine  their  attention  to  making 
butter  alone,  and  in  that  case  a  good  cool  cellar  is  the  essential  requi- 
site. Let  the  milk  he  set  on  the  ground,  for  it  is  the  coolest  part  of 
the  cellar  in  summer  and  the  warmest  in  winter. 

If  milk  be  kept  in  tin  pans,  and  set  within  earthen  ones,  of  a  texture 
soporous,  so  that  the  water  in  them  will  gradually  exude,  this  will  im- 
part a  great  degree  of  coolness  to  the  milk.  The  water  in  the  earthen 
pans  should  surround  those  holding  the  milk  if  the  outer  pan  were 
made  of  Bti£r  leather,  it  would  answer  the  same  purpose. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  47 

DEW.  '•  An  experiment,"  says  Mr.  Livingston,  "  has  been  made 
to  ascertain  the  difference  between  dew  water  and  rain  water,  by  put- 
iog  an  equal  quantity  of  each  in  different  vessels,  and  setting  them  in 
the  sun  to  dry  away ;  the  result  was,  that  the  sediment  or  settlings 
of  the  dew  water  were  greater  in  quantity,  blacker,  and  richer,  than 
that  of  the  rain  water." 

Dew  is,  therefore,  fertilizing ;  and,  this  is  the  reason  why  lands  will 
be  most  benefited  by  being  constantly  ploughed  when  the  dew  is  on 
them. 

See  article  Fallowing,  &c. 

DITCH-  This  is  either  for  enclosing  grounds  to  serve  in  the 
place  of  other  fencing,  or  to  carry  off  superfluous  water.  When  made 
for  a  fence,  it  ought  to  be  four  feet  wide  at  the  top,  one,  or  less,  at  the 
bottom,  and  about  two  and  a  half  deep,  with  the  earth  all  thrown  out 
on  one  side,  and  banked  up  as  high  as  possible.  This,  however,  is 
but  a  poor  fence,  unless  a  hedge  of  some  kind  be  planted  on  it;  or, 
unless  it  be  raised  higher  by  posts  and  rails,  or  boards ;  or,  by  stakes 
and  wicker-work;  and  this,  where  cedar  can  be  had  for  the  purpose, 
makes  a  good  durable  fence. 

See  article  Hedges. 

To  drain  swamps,  ditches  ought  to  be  of  size  and  depth  proportion- 
ate to  the  extent  of  the  swamp;  or  rather  let  them  be  proportionate 
to  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  carried  off.  Those  round  the  edges  of 
the  swamp  ought  to  be  so  placed  as  to  receive  all  the  water  from  the 
springs  which  commonly  run  in  on  every  side  ;  or,  if  convenient,  they 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  cut  off  the  springs,  by  receiving  them  int© 
the  ditch.  When  a  very  wet  swamp  is  to  be  drained,  the  months  of 
August  and  September  are  the  best  for  performing  this  labor,  as  the 
ground  is  then  driest,  while  at  the  same  lime  the  water  will  not  prove 
trouldesome  by  its  coldness.  The  proper  proportions  for  these  kind* 
of  ditches  are  to  be  three  times  as  wide  at  the  top  as  they  are  at  the 
bottom,  and  a  little  more  than  half  as  deep  as  they  are  wide.  If  they 
are  not  thus  sloped  they  will  fall  in;  owing  to  the  heaving  of  the 
ground  liy  the  froets.  To  prevent  their  falling  in,  it  is  advisable  to 
sow  some  strong  rooted  grass  on  the  sides  of  the  ditches. 

See  further,  article  Bog-Meadow. 

DIVISIONS  OF  A  FARM.  If  a  farm  be  nearly  square  it  may 
sometimes  be  advisable  to  have  a  wide  lane  through  the  middle,  and 
lots  laid  off  on  each  side  ;  or,  if  it  be  more  oblong,  a  wide  lane  on  one 
side  may  be  advisable,  and  th.  lots  laid  off  to  it.  No  certain  direc- 
tions can,  however,  l»e  given  on  this  head,  ouing  to  the  differeat 


48  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

shapes,  soils,  «i:c.  of  farms.  A  lane  of  this  kind  may  often  be  the 
more  eligible  where  it  can  take  in  some  spring,  or  other  living  water. 
as  in  that  case,  every  field  becomes  accessible  to  the  water  at  all 
times,  by  leaving  open  the  gate  of  that  which  is  in  present  use  in 
pasturing. 

Lots  for  tillage  should  always  be  square,  or  at  least  of  equal  sides  ; 
those  for  mowing  or  pasture  may  be  irregular  without  any  incon- 
venience. 

DRESSINGS.  A  dressing  differs  from  a  manuring  only  in  this, 
that  the  former  is  intended  merely  for  one  croj),  Avhile  the  latter  is 
intended  for  several.  Some  dressings,  such  as  gypsum,  ashes,  salt, 
&c.  &:c.  are  to  be  laid  on  the  soil;  others  again,  such  as  composts,  6cc. 
are  to  be  slighlly  buried  in  it,  and  mixed  with  its  surface. 

DRILL:  An  instrument  for  sowing  seeds  by  opening  furrows  at 
proper  distances,  and  of  proper  depth,  dropping  the  seeds  and  cover- 
ing them  all  at  one  operation.  It  may  be  drawn  by  horses,  or  b\ 
hand,  according  to  its  size,  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied. 
A  single  drill  plough  is  successfully  used  for  planting  Indian  corn  in 
rows.  Mr.  Rutherford  makes  mention  of  one  used  in  New-Jersey  for 
sowing  wheat  in  rows  thirteen  inches  apart,  which  is  drawn  by  two 
horses,  with  which  a  man  can  drill  in  about  eight  acres  per  day.  The 
cost  of  it  is  about  eight  or  ten  dollars.  He  adds,  that  where  the  see<! 
is  drilled  in  with  this  machine,  the  crop  will  be  much  larger,  and  at 
the  same  time  less  seed  is  requisite. 

The  land  on  which  the  drill  is  used  should  be  entirely  clear  oi 
stumps  and  stones  ;  and  on  such  lands  the  farmer  may  tind  great  ac- 
count in  making  use  of  these  machines.  Particular  descriptions  of 
them  are  here  omitted,  because  it  is  diificult  to  describe  them  so  as  to 
give  the  reader  an  adequate  idea  of  their  construction.  The  spirited 
farmer  who  is  anxious  to  test  their  efficacy  may  easily  inform  himself 
of  the  construction  of  the  different  kinds  in  use. 

DROUGHT.  As  a  country  becomes  cleared  of  its  timber,  it  be- 
comes more  liable  to  droughts;  and  these  will  be  more  or  less  severe 
according  to  the  climate.  That  which  is  naturally  cool  and  moist, 
such  as  that  of  Great-Britain  and  Ireland,  will  seldom,  if  ever,  be  af- 
fected by  too  much  dry  weather  ;  while  that  in  which  the  summer? 
are  hotter,  and  of  course,  the  atmosphere  drj'er,  will  often  suffer  much 
on  this  account.  In  most  parts  of  Spain,  the  fields  are  parched  up  by 
the  middle  of  summer;  but  before  this  the  crops  are  all  harvested.  In 
this  country,  droughts  are  never  so  severe,  nor  so  universal,  yet  partial 
ones  are  often  experienced,  much  earlier,  and  long  before  the  crops 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  49 

haveeome  to  maturity.  This  is  an  evil,  and  all  the  farmer  can  do, 
is  to  make  the  best  possible  provision  against  it. 

Generally  speaking,  nothing  is  better  calculated  to  ward  off  the 
effects  of  droughts  than  good  cultiTation,  by  ploughingsufiBciently  deep, 
and  effectually,  and  manuring  well.  Ground  that  is  well  mellowed 
to  a  proper  depth  will  stand  a  drought  much  better  than  that  which  is 
ploughed  shallow  and  left  in  clods;  and  that  which  is  well  manured 
will  retain  more  moisture  than  that  which  is  poor.  Again,  ground 
which  is  thus  well  prepared  and  manured,  shoots  forth  its  crop  so 
rapidly,  that  the  ground  is  soon  covered  and  shaded  from  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  and  for  this  reason,  retains  its  moisture  longer.  The  same 
may  be  observed  of  mowing  lands. 

Gypsum  is  also  an  antidote  to  droughts ;  and  fortunately,  it  suits  the 
soils  best  which  are  most  affected  in  this  way. 

Another  way  to  avoid  the  effects  of  droughts,  is,  to  cultivate  swamp 
lands  more  extensively,  in  raising  such  productions  as  are  most  liable 
to  receive  injury  in  this  way.  Such  lands,  when  well  drained,  and 
duly  mixed  with  proper  earths,  or  other  manures,  may  undoubtedly 
be  rendered  excellent  for  almost  every  summer  crop  which  is  liable 
to  be  injured  by  too  much  dry  weather.  Wet  lands  also,  which  hare 
been  hollow-drained,  will  stand  a  drought  much  better  than  in  their 
original  wet  state. 

In  pastures,  planting  some  kinds  of  trees  in  different  parts,  is  bene' 
ficial  in  preventing  the  effects  of  drought ;  and  the  best  for  this  is  the 
locust;  as  it  will  increase  the  pasture,  serve  for  shade,  and  eventually 
yield  much  valuable  timber  and  fuel. 

See  article  Locust. 

DUNG,  DUNGHILLS,  &c.    S<fe article  M^yusEs, 


50  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 


E. 


EARTHS.  Chemists  by  analysiog  the  matter  which  forms  the 
Earth,  find  it  to  contain  several  primuire  earths,  some  of  which  are 
called  aUcnline  earths,  and  some,  earths  simply.  The  former  are 
barytes,  strontites,  lime,  and  maguesia;  the  latter  are  silex,  alumine, 
zircon,  glucine,  and  ytria. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  these  earths  minutely,  or  to  Bay  any 
thing  of  any  other  than  those  which  commonly  enter  into  the  compo- 
sition of  soils.  These,  says  Mr.  Davy,  are  principaHy  silex,  aluniine, 
Hme,  and  magnesia.  In  addition  to  these,  other  subrtauces  are  found 
soils,  such  as  animal  and  vegetable  matter  in  a  decomposing  state,  cer- 
tain saline  compounds,  and  the  oxyde  of  iron. 

Of  lime,  something  has  already  oeen  said.  {See  article  Limestone.) 
Lime  is  but  seldom  found  in  its  jiurity ;  it  is  geoerally  combined  with 
other  earths,  and  Avith  acids.  Limestone,  mar'»le,  chalk,  marie,  &c- 
are  mixtures  of  lime  with  other  earths,  combined  with  carbonic  acid. 
Gypsuni,  or  sulphate  of  fime,  is  a  mixture  of  Kme  with  other  earths, 
combined  with  sulphuric  acid ;  and,  when  lime  h  combined  vitb 
phosphoric  acid,  it  is  called  phosphate  of  lime.  Lime,  in  its  pure 
state,  is  infusible,  but  is  readily  dissolved  in  acrds,  or  in  680  times  ita 
weight  of  water. 

Magnesia  is  a  pure  white  earth,  very  friable,  light,  and  spongy,  and 
is  always  combined  with  other  substances.  Alumioe  is  the  basis  of 
clay,  and  serres  to  endue  it  with  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  coo- 
tracting  when  dried,  and  still  more  when  heated,  and  of  expanding 
ag nin  when  moistened. 

Silex,  or  flinty  earth,  is  mostly  exhibited  in  the  form  of  white  or 
crystalline  sand.  There  are  also  calcareous  sands,  and  silex  i<  some- 
times mixed  with  these.  Calcarious  sands  are  solable,  with  efferves- 
cence, in  muriatic  acid. 

Aninud  decomposing  matter  exists,  says  Mr.  Davy,  in  different 
states,  according  as  the  substances  from  which  it  is  proiluced  are  dif- 
ferent It  contains  much  carbonaceoBs  substance,  and  may  be  mostly- 
resolved,  by  heat,  into  this,  together  with  carbonic  acid,  volatile  al- 
kali, and  inflammable  aeriform  products.  It  is  principally  found  in 
lands  that  have  lately  been  manured. 

Vegetable  decomposing  niHtter  is  likewise  various  in  kind,  and  con- 
tains more  carbonaceous  substance  than  animal  matter.    It  produces 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  61 

«>  volaiHe  alkali.  It  forms  a  large  propertion  of  peats;  abounds  in 
rich  mould  ;  and  is  found  in  greater  or  less  quantities  in  all  lands. 

The  saline  compounds  found  in  soils  are  rarely  to  be  discovered, 
and  are  principally  muriate  of  Soda,  (common  salt,)  sulphate  of  raag- 
Besia,  (Epsom  salt,)  and  muriate,  and  sulphate  of  pot-ash,  nitrate  of 
lime,  and  the  mild  alkalies. 

The  oxyde  of  iron,  (rust  of  iron,)  is  found  in  all  soils,  but  most  in 
yeliow  and  red  cJays,  and  yellow  and  red  silicious  sands. 

The  same  combinations  of  earthy  matter  may  be  productive  of  very 
diii'crent  degrees  of  fertility  in  dilJerent  situations,  and  in  different 
clvnates.  Thus  a  sandy  soil  under  the  equator  is  barren  from  its  want 
of  retnining  a  sufficiency  of  water  for  the  climate,  Avhile  the  same  soil 
in  a  cool  moist  climate  would  lie  found  sufficiently  retentive  to  be  pro- 
ductive. A  stilf  clay,  again,  which  under  the  equator  would  not  be 
too  reteative  of  moisture  for  fertility,  would  be  found  barren  from  its 
wetness  in  a  cool  moist  climate.  But  let  the  sand  in  the  hot  climate 
have  a  close  understratum  of  stiff  clay,  or  the  clay  in  the  cool  climate 
a  close  unilerstratum  of  loose  sand,  and  they  would  each  be  rendered 
fertile. 

Mr.  Tillet,  in  some  experiments  made  on  the  composition  of  soils  at 
Paris,  found  that  a  soil  composed  of  three  eights  of  clay,  two  of  river 
sand,  and  three  of  the  parings  of  linieatone,  was  very  proper  for 
wheat. 

Mr.  Davy  mentions  a  very  fertile  corn  soil  from  Ormiston,  (Eng- 
land,) which  contained,  in  an  hundred  parts,  eleven  of  mild  calcarioue 
earth,  twenty-five  of  silicious  sand,  and  forty-five  of  finely  divided 
clay.  It  lost  nine  in  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  and 
four  in  water,  and  afforded  indications  of  a  small  quantity  of  phosphate 
of  lime.  He  attributes  its  extreme  fertility  to  the  presence  of  the 
phosphate,  as  this  is  found  in  wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  and  is  probably 
part  of  tbeir  food.  Soil  from  the  lowlands  of  Somersetshire,  which 
is  famous  for  producing  wheat  and  beans,  without  requiring  any  ma- 
nure, he  found  to  consist,  one  ninth  of  sand,  chiefly  silicious,  and 
^ight  ninths  of  calcareous  marie,  tinged  with  iron,  and  containing 
about  five  parts  in  the  hundred  of  vegetable  matter.  This  contained 
no  phosphate,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  and  he  supposes  its  fertility  owing 
principally  to  its  power  of  attracting  vegetable  nourishment  from  water 
and  the  atmosphere. 

By  analysing  the  finest  soils  in  this  country,  and  comparing  the 
ri»6ults  with  those  which  are  poor  in  the  same  neighborhood,  we  might 


52  FARMER'S  ASSISTAIST. 

ascertain  the  deficiencies  of  the  latter,  and  thus  in  many  instances  he 
enabled  to  apply  the  remedy  with  much  more  precision  and  effect. 

ELDER.  These  are  extremely  offensive  to  almost  all  insects,  and 
are  therefore  good  to  spread  round  plants  when  they  are  liable  to  their 
attacks. 

See  article  Insects. 

ELM  ;  (Ulmus  Americana.)  A  beautiful  tree  to  plant  near  houses 
and  elsewhere.  It  grows  pretty  rapidly  and  is  very  long-lived.  There 
are  three  varieties,  the  white,  the  yellow,  and  the  red  elm.  The 
two  latter  are  the  best  timber  for  any  kind  of  use,  and  the  latter  in 
particular  is  very  durable. 

ENCLOSURES.  Throughout  the  most  of  France  and  seme  other 
parts  of  Europe,  the  arable  and  mowing  lands  are  not  fenced,  but  lie 
in  common,  while  the  lands  on  which  cattle  are  usually  kept  are  en- 
closed. 

This  method  of  husbandry  has  some  advantages,  and  it  has  its  dis- 
advantages ;  much  is  thereby  saved  in  the  expense  of  making  en- 
closures; but  when  cattle  are  to  be  fed  on  uninclosed  grounds,  as  must 
sometimes  be  the  case,  they  must  be  watched,  to  prevent  their  stray- 
ing away,  or  getting  into  mischief.  This,  says  Mr.  Living«lon,  is 
generally  done  by  the  women  ;  they  may  be  seen  at  all  times  during 
the  season  of  pasture,  sitting  in  the  fields  employed  in  sprnniug,  while 
the  keeping  of  the  cattle  within  their  proper  limits  does  not  require 
their  immediate  attention. 

It  may  be  ditficult  to  determine  whether  this  method  of  farming 
may  not,  on  the  whole,  be  as  good  as  any,  in  a  highly  cultivated  and 
thick  settled  country.  Be  this  as  it  may,  those  countries  w  hich  l»ave 
adopted  this  method  will  hardly  ever  be  found  to  change,  owing  as 
well  to  the  inconvenience  of  producing,  throughout  a  whole  country, 
so  radical  an  alteration,  as  to  the  difficulty  of  over<5oming  prejudices, 
which  are  almost  inseparable  from  an  ancient  and  hereditary  custom. 

EXPERIMENTS.  There  is  no  way  of  making  improvements  in 
farming  but  by  experiments.  If  the  farmer  is  informed  of,  or  has  con- 
ceived a  different  and  better  method  of  culture,  or  management,  in 
any  branch  of  his  farming,  he  is  to  test  the  goodness  of  that  method 
by  experiments;  and  if  these  prove  successful  he  may  congratulate 
himself  on  having  performed  an  act  which  is  serviceable  to  bis  coun- 
try and  honorable  to  himself. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  well,  if  some  institution  was  devised  and  sup- 
ported at  the  expense  of  the  state,  which  should  be  so  organized  as 
Tfould  tend  most  effectually  to  produce  a  due  degree  of  emulation 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  b'3 

among  farmers,  by  rewards  and  honorary  distinctions  conferred  on 
those  who  by  their  successful  experimental  efforts  and  improvements, 
should  render  themselves  duly  entitled  to  them.  It  might  also  be  ad- 
visable to  have  two  or  three  experimental  farms  in  different  parts  of 
the  state,  under  the  direction  of  suitable  superintendents,  who  should 
have  the  profits  of  the  farms  to  themselves,  and  who  should  be  excited 
to  a  degree  of  emulation  by  a  reAvard  given  yearly  to  that  superin- 
tendent which  should  be  found  the  best  entitled  by  his  superior  cul- 
ture, and  by  the  success  of  his  experiments,  when  duly  authenticated, 
and  published  yearly  for  the  benefit  of  community.  Something  like 
these  might  cost  considerable  at  first;  but  might  eventually  be  made 
Jhe  means  of  greatly  enriching  the  state  by  improving  its  agriculture. 


F. 


FALLOWING  of  LAND.  Lands  may  be  greatly  recruited  by 
a  summer  fallowing,  and  also,  by  a  winter  fallowing;  as  by  these  me- 
thods, particularly  the  former,  sufficient  time  is  given  to  recruit  and 
enrich  the  soil  by  frequeut  ploughings  and  harrowings.  All  kinds  of 
soils,  however,  do  not  derive  equal  benefit  from  fallowings.  A  very 
rich  soil,  and  a  light  sandy  one,  require  little  more  than  to  be  suffici- 
ently mellowed  for  the  reception  of  the  seed  ;  but  all  others  which  are 
naturally  more  or  less  sterile,  or  have  been  exhausted  by  too  frequent 
cropping,  may  be  greatly  recruited  by  frequent  ploughings  and  harrow- 
ings. Mr.  Tull,  an  ingenious  farmer  of  Great-Britain,  was  of  opinion, 
that  lands  could  be  made  and  kept  rich  by  the  mere  operation  of  th* 
plough  and  harrow ;  that  dung,  or  manure,  only  served  to  produce  a 
greater  fermentation  in  the  soil ;  and,  that  this  could  be  as  well  ef- 
fected by  frequently  stirring  it.  This  is  perhaps  in  a  great  measure 
true,  but  not  wholly  so.  Undoubtedly  in  what  are  called  the  harder 
or  stiffer  soils,  frequent  ploughings  will  do  wonders,  not  only  in  pre- 
paring the  ground  for  a  single  crop,  but  also  in  fertilizing  the  soiK 
Take,  for  instance,  a  field  of  any  stiff  or  hard  soil,  which  with  the 
common  culture  of  ploughing  three  times  and  harrowing  twice,  will 
yield  a  crop  of  ten  bushels  of  wheat,  or  rye,  to  the  acre ;  let  this 


oi  FARMER'S  ASSISTAiNT. 

same  field  be  broke  up  early  and  give  it  ten  ploughiugs,  and  it  niil 
then  yield  twenty  bushels  an  acre,  and  the  laud  will  afterwards  be 
richer  and  much  freed  from  weeds  by  this  culture.  Here,  then,  by 
the  seven  extra  ploughings  the  farmer  gains  ten  bushels  an  acre — 
Will  this  pay  him  ?  The  expense  of  these  seven  additional  plongb- 
ings,  allowing  a  man  and  two  horses  to  plough  two  acres  a  day,  and 
putting  this  at  two  dollars,  would  cost  seven  dollars;  and  lor  this  he 
gets  ten  bushels  of  wheat,  or  rye,  in  the  field,  and  his  lands  made  more 
valuable  by  the  extra  ploughings. 

The  farmer  will  find  nearly  the  same  advantage  in  winter  fallow- 
ing as  in  summer  fallowing,  particularly  in  the  stiffer  soils,  where  the 
ground  ought  to  be  well  mellowed  in  the  fall,  and  thrown  up  in  ridges 
or  large  furrows  for  the  operation  of  the  winter  frosts ;  as  these  will  as- 
sist much  io  mellowing  and  fertilizing  it. 

Summer  fallowing  is,  however,  merely  recommended,  generally, 
for  exhausted  lands  ;  but  by  no  means  as  part  of  a  general  system  of 
good  farming,  where  the  land  is  in  a  proper  state  for  high  cultivation 
and  a  rotation  of  fruitful  crops.  The  farmer,  if  his  fields  are  exhaust- 
ed, may  begin  to  recruit  them  by  summer  fallowings,  and  Irequent 
ploughings;  but  he  should  do  more  than  this;  he  ought  to  persevere 
in  enriching  them  bj-  gypsum  or  other  manures,  and  clover,  until  he 
has  rendered  them  truly  fit  for  complete  cultivation. 

Ploughing  early  in  the  mornings,  while  the  dew  is  on,  is  much  the 
best ;  as  the  fertilizing  qualities  of  dews  are  then  absorbed  in  tlie  soil, 
which  are  afterwards  evajwrated  by  the  heat  of  the  sua.  (See  article 
Dew.)  a  farmer  cannot,  however,  always  wait  tohave  all  his  lands 
ploughed  while  the  dew  is  on,  though  it  may  be  well  to  do  as  much 
of  it  then  as  [)Ossible.  When  coarse  barn  dung  is  to  be  applied  to  a 
fallow,  it  ought  to  be  carted  on  in  the  spring,  so  that  it  may  be  well 
mixed  with  the  soil  by  the  ploughings;  but  where  composts  are  ap- 
plied it  should  be  done  just  before  sowing,  and  then  be  well  mixed 
with  the  soil,  but  not  buried  deep  in  it. 

Green  sward  land  intended  for  spring  crops  should  always  be  broken 
up  pretty  early  in  the  fall,  and  if  it  be  wet,  or  a  siitTsoil,  let  it  be 
cross  ploughed  and  thrown  up  into  high  narrow  ridges,  in  order  to  lie 
dry,  and  be  mellowed  and  fertilized  by  the  winter  frosts. 

FALSE  QUARTER.  A  rift  or  chink  in  the  hoof  of  a  horse 
from  top  to  bottom.  The  inner  side  of  the  hoof  t)eiog  the  thinnest  is 
most  liable  to  it.  When  it  becomes  troublesome  to  a  horse,  Gibson 
directs,  that  the  cleft  be  pared  out  to  the  quick ;  then  annoint  the 
hoof , with  a  mixture  of  tar.  honey  and  suet,  melted  together,  and  lay  a 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  55 

pledgef,  dipt  in  the  same,  along  in  the  cleft.  Then  bind  up  the  hoof 
as  tight  as  possible,  by  winding  rope-yarn  closely  round  it  from  top  to 
bottom.  The  shoe  should  previously  be  taken  off.  The  wound 
should  be  opened  and  drest  every  third  or  fourth  day,  and  to  prevent 
any  inconveniency  from  this,  let  the  cleft  be  held  together  at  the 
bottom  by  a  thin  [date  fastened  on  for  the  purpose. 

It  is  however  very  difficult,  and  often  impossible,  says  this  author, 
to  effect  a  cure  in  an  old  or  a  diseased  horse. 

FARCY.  A  disease  in  horses  similar  to  the  scurvy  among  men, 
and  is  caused  by  coufiaing  a  horse  too  long  to  dry  meal.  It  is  known 
by  small  tumors  appearing  on  the  head  and  other  parts  of  the  body. 
Turning  the  horse  to  fresh  pasture  will  effect  a  cure  in  the  first  stages 
of  the  disorder;  but  where  it  has  become  more  inveterate  by  long 
standing,  Gibson  directs,  that  the  horse  be  bled,  motlerately  purged, 
and  then,  that  doses  of  antimony  be  given  him. 

FARMERS.  Originally  those  were  called  farmers  who  took 
lands  upon  rent ;  while  freeholders  and  those  who  owned  farms  them- 
selves, were  called  t/fo.nm  or  gentlemen  farmers.  But  here  we  ap- 
ply the  term  generally;  every  man  who  cultivates  a  farm,  whether 
he  owns  it,  or  has  a  freehold  estate  in  it,  or  merely  rents  it,  is  called 
a  farmer.  We  do  not  consider  the  mere  circumstance  of  owning  a 
farm  sutficient  to  dub  the  owner  a  gentleman;  neil^her  do  we  consider 
the  condition  of  him  who  is  obliged  to  hire  lands  of  others  to  culti- 
vate for  a  living,  so  low  as  to  be  on  that  account  precluded  from  that 
rank.  Farmers  here  being  generally  lords  of  the  soil  they  cultivate, 
have  reason  to  be  thankful  that  their  lots  are  cast  in  pleasant  lime* 
and  places;  and  that  their  condition  is  not  that  which  too  generally 
prevails  throughout  Europe.  There,  it  is  at  best  but  as  tenants  in 
common  socage  ;  and  descending  from  this  to  the  lowest  state,  as  in 
Poland  and  Russia,  is  that  of  mere  slavery ;  being  attached  to  the 
soil,  liable  to  be  sold  with  it,  and  under  the  despotic  control  of  their 
landlords  or  masters. 

But  though  the  farmer  here  has  attained  his  proper  standing,  let 
him  not  suppose,  that  in  all  cases  the  mere  holding  and  occupying  a 
large  farm  will  either  contribute  to  his  profit  or  to  his  consequence  as 
a  farmer.  If  he  has  hands  sutficient  within  his  own  family  to  carry  on 
the  necessary  labors  of  a  large  farm,  it  is  well;  but  if  he  has  to  hire 
all  his  laborers  for  this  purpose,  he  must  be  industrious  and  farm  on 
the  best  plans,  if  he  makes  as  much  as  ought  to  be  the  just  reward  of 
his  exertions.  Owing  to  the  circumstance  that  the  most  industriou:* 
youngmen  who  are  destitute  of  property  are  in  the  habit  of  goingoff  to 


5ti  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

new  countries  to  procure  new  lands  for  themselves,  the  price  of  laboi- 
is  so  hinh,  that  the  utmost  must  be  made  olit,  if  the  farmer  expects  a 
good  j)rofit;  and  lience  is  derived  an  additional  reason  why  farmer* 
should  study  to  improve  their  system  of  farming.  But  by  no  means 
let  those  be  discouraged  who  are  ambitious  to  excel  in  farming  on  a 
large  scale,  for  when  ably  conducted,  fanning  largely  has  usually  been 
found  to  yield  most  clear  profit  to  the  acre  ;  but  those  who  have  but 
little  help  within  their  own  families,  and  at  the  same  time  do  not  feel 
sufficiently  ambitious  to  drive  the  business  with  vigor,  are  advised  not 
to  trouble  themselves  with  large  farms;  rather  let  them  sell  these  and 
buy  small  ones,  which  they  can  sufficiently  cultivate  with  their  own 
resources  oflabor,  and  put  out  the  surplus  money  at  interest.  When 
we  see  a  farmer  attem|)ting  to  cultivate  a  farm  of  two  or  three  hun- 
dred acres,  with  one  or  two  hands;  and,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases, 
merely  running  over  his  fields  without  deriving  much  from  them,  the 
reflection  must  naturally  arise,  how  much  better  it  would  be  for  him 
to  sell  his  large  farm,  purchase  one  of  half,  or  a  third  of  its  size,  culti- 
vate that  well,  and  then  from  the  interest  of  the  surplus  money  he 
might  derive  an  annual  income,  which  could  be  yearly  added  to  the 
principal,  and  thus  enable  him  to  grow  rich  in  a  few  years;  while 
with  his  large  farm  he  might  toil  all  his  life-time  without  making  any 
material  addition  to  his  estate. 

These  remarks  are,  however,  more  applicable  to  farms  which  are 
naturally  arable  lands,  than  to  those  soils  which  never  fail  of  yielding 
plentiful  crops  of  grass  and  an  abundant  supply  of  pasture;  and  such 
lands  greatly  abound  in  the  western  and  northerly  parts  of  this  state. 
On  such  lands  the  farmer  may  turn  almost  his  whole  attention  to 
rearing  cattle,  raising  little  more  grain  than  is  sufficient  for  his  family, 
and  as  many  hands  are  not  requisite  in  this  case,  except  in  mowing 
time,  the  labor  necessary  for  a  large  farm  may  be  performed  with  lesa 
expense,  and  at  the  same  time  to  advantage;  but  not  with  so  much 
clear  profit  to  the  acre  as  may  be  derived  from  most  of  the  same  lands 
if  made  arable,  and  brought  under  the  most  approved  cultivation. 

As  this  method  of  farming  affords  abundance  of  manure  from  the 
dung  of  the  cattle,  it  enables  the  farmer  to  cultivate  a  small  piece  of 
ground  to  the  utmost  advantage.  He  may  raise  a  few  acre*  of  the 
necessary  roots  for  feeding  his  cattle,  and  the  same  of  grain,  and  have 
the  produce  of  each  as  great  as  it  is  possible  for  the  soil  to  yield. 

See  further  articles,  Soiling,  Neat  Cattle,  &c. 

FENCES.  Poor  fences  are  productive  of  incalculable  mischief  to 
the  farmer.     By  these  his  crops  are  constantly  liable  to  be  destroyed 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  57 

and  his  cattle  learn  to  become  habitually  unruly.  One  unruly  creature 
will  leara  others  to  be  so;  and  thus  the  farmer,  uith  his  poor  fences 
tinds  his  cattle,  instead  of  being  profitable,  to  become  productive  of 
unceasin<^  losses,  and,  what  follows  of  course,  of  unceasing  vexation. 
When  the  farmer  is  conscious,  that  he  cannot  even  sleep  in  peace,  on 
account  of  the  danger  of  his  cattle  destroying  the  fruits  of  his  labors, 
he  cannot  be  said  to  enjoy  that  tranquillity  which  ought  to  be   he  re 
ward  of  the  swe^t  of  his  brow.     Rather,  therefore,  let  him  make  his 
fences  what  might  be  generally  deemed  more  than  suthciently  high 
and  strong,  than  too  low  and  weak.     This,  if  it  be  an  error,  is  errmg 
on  the  safe  side-oa  the  side  which  secures  tl^e  fruits  oi  his  labors, 
and  promotes  his  tranquillity  and  happiness. 

Lo<.  fences  are  often  made  on  new  cleared  lands  where  rail  timber 
does  not  sufficiently  abound,  and  these  the  farmer  will  of  course  make 
of  the  most  durable  logs  which  his  new  cleared  land  aftords.  ^^  hite 
nine  log  fences  are  very  good,  and  will  last  twenty  years  without  any 
essential  repairing.  Clear  white  pine  timber  may,  however,  be  split 
into  raiU,  which  are  very  durable.  All  kinds  of  wood  wdl  last  much 
lon<-er  in  rails  where  the  bark  is  peeled  off. 

What  are  called  worm  fences  are  made  with  most  ease,  but  reqmre 
more  timber  than  some  other  kinds.     If,  therefore,  timber  be  scarce 
post  and  rail  fences,  set  in  a  bank,  made  of  the  earth  of  two  small 
ditches  thrown  up  together,  ought  to  be  preferred,  where  good  durable 
posts  can  be  had.     If  the  posts  are   too  small   to  have  holes  made 
through  them,  the  rails  may  be  flatted  at  the  ends  and  fastened  to  the 
posts  with  spikes,  or  with  wooden  pins  well  secured.     Post  and  rail 
fences,  without  these  ditches  on  each  side,  are  very  good  where  the 
soil  is  dry,  and  the  same  may  be  observed  of  board  fences  ;  but  where 
the  soil  is  wet,  the  posts  will  be  thrown  out  by  the  frosts.     In  all 
ca^es  the  posts  ought  to  be  set  at  least  two  feet  in  the  ground.     Red 
cedar  is  best  for  posts.     Locust,  chesnut,  butter-nut,  and  black  walnut 
are  also  sood.    Good  oak  will  also  last  pretty  well.    Burning  the  ends 
of  the  posts  which  go  into  the  ground,  30  as  to  make  them  black,  will 

make  them  last  longer. 

For  hedge  fences,  ,ec  article  Hr.DGES.     For  making  stone  walls, 

sfftf  article  Stones. 

FERMENTATION.  Ground  is  in  a  complete  state  ot  termema- 
tion  when  the  adhesion  of  its  particles  is  destroyed;  when  it  is  in  a 
,0ft  puffy  state,  so  that  when  pressed  down  it  will  expand  again.  It 
is  to  be  brought  to  this  state  by  frequent  ploughiues,  or  by  ploughmgs 

and  manurings  together. 

8 


uH  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

When  ground  is  in  the  highest  fermentation,  it  is  then  in  the  best 
state  for  growing  of  plants;  and  (he  more  effectually  the  fermentafion 
is  kept  up  during  the  time  in  which  the  plants  are  growing,  the  greater 
will  be  their  growth. 

Frosts  have  great  effect  in  preparing  for  a  state  of  fermentation  in 
stiff  soils,  when  thrown  up  during  winter,  in  such  manner  as  to  lie  dry. 
{See  article  Freezing.)  Moderate  rains,  succeeded  by  warm  sun- 
shine, have  also  a  similar  effect  on  such  soils. 

During  the  summer  season  a  proper  state  of  fermentation  is  only 
to  be  produced  in  the  soil  when  it  is  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry. 
Ploughing,  however,  when  the  ground  is  very  dry,  if  not  so  good  for 
producing:  a  state  of  fermentation,  is  nevertheless,  good  for  killing  all 
weeds  and  gras«,  with  wiiich  the  soil  may  be  infested. 

FERN,  OR  BRAKES  ;  C Poh/podium.J  This  weed  grows  in  some 
cold  loamy  soils  in  the  northern  parts  of  this  state  ;  but  it  appears  to 
be  easily  extirpated  i)y  tilling  the  land.  In  the  northern  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, it  is  in  man\-  places  troublesome  and  difficult  to  subdue.  They 
however  esteem  it  much  when  made  into  manure,  as  it  contains  a 
large  portion  of  salts.  In  some  parts  of  the  north  of  Europe  they 
burn  it,  and  gather  the  ashes,  which,  being  wetted  with  water,  are 
made  into  little  balls  and  dried  in  the  sun,  and  are  then  esteemed  to 
be  nearly  as  good  as  soap  for  the  purposes  of  washing. 

FLAX  ;  (Limim.)  Such  crops  of  flax  as  are  usually  raised  do  not 
pay  for  the  labor  bestowed  on  them.  This  must  be  owing  to  bad 
management.  As  this  is  a  crop  that  the  farmer  must  raise,  if  he  has 
any  regard  to  domestic  economy,  the  means  of  raising  it  to  advantage 
should  be  duly  attended  to. 

A  good  method  of  raising  a  great  croj)  of  flax,  is  as  follows :  Sum- 
mer-fallow a  piece  of  ground  of  suitable  soil,  and  give  it  six  or  eight 
ploughingB  and  harrowings  during  the  summer,  so  as  to  destroy  all  the 
seeds  of  weeds.  {See  article  Simmer-fallowing.)  Apply  your  ma- 
nures during  the  first  ploughings,  unless  they  be  composts,  or  top- 
dressings;  at  all  events  let  the  soil  be  eventually  made  rich  enough 
for  hemp.  The  next  spring  mellow  the  ground  well  again  by  two  or 
three  ploughings,  harrow  it,  and  sow,  of  well  cleaned  seed,  at  the  rate 
of  about  three  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  harrow  it  in  lightly.  Give  the 
ground  a  top-dressing  of  about  four  bushels  of  fine  salt  to  the  acre,  and 
also  some  gj'|)sum,  if  the  soil  be  suitable.  Let  the  crop  be  sown 
about  the  first  of  May,  or  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  effectually 
prepared  after  vegetation  has  commenced.  By  this  method  of  culture, 
and  with  a  proper  change  of  seed,  five  or  six  hundred  pounds  of  flax 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  59 

may  be  expected  from  the  acre,  of  a  fine  quality.  This  is  probably 
about  the  best  culture,  and  all  deviations  Irom  it,  by  less  expensive 
methods  in  preparing;  the  ground,  will,  generally,  be  much  for  the 
worse.  Ground  may,  however,  be  pretty  well  prepared  for  a  good 
crop  by  previous  hoed  crops  which  have  been  well  manured,  particu- 
larly if  pains  be  taken  to  prevent  any  weeds  going  to  seed  in  the  fall. 
Weeds  are  the  enemy  of  flax;  and  no  good  crops  can  be  raised  on 
ground  that  is  full  of  their  seeds,  evea  though  it  be  sufficiently  rich 
and  well  prepared. 

See  further  article,  Folding  of  Land,  for  a  proper  method  of 
preparing  the  ground  for  flax. 

In  adiUtion  to  the  requisites  of  a  rich  earth,  free  of  the  seeds  of 
weeds  and  well  mellowed,  for  obtaining  a  good  crop  of  flax,  another 
requisite  is,  that  the  ground  shall  not  have  l>orne  flax  for  as  much  as 
seven  years  previous  to  tlie  time  it  is  to  be  sown  with  this  crop.  Al- 
most every  soil  that  is  sufSciently  dry  for  a  proj)er  degree  ol' fermenta- 
tion, may,  by  being  well  prepared  as  above  directed,  l>e  made  to  yield 
good  crops  of  flax,  unless  the  soil  has  too  little  moisture,  as  may  be 
the  case  with  dry  gravelly  and  light  sandy  earths.  Gypsum  will, 
however,  very  materially  assist  in  supplying  these  earths  with  a  due 
degree  of  moisture. 

But  a  very  essential  point  ia  raising  great  crops  of  flax  is  to  have 
frequent  change  of  the  seed. 
See  article  Change  of  Seeds, 

The  quantity  of  seed  sown  should  be  proportioned  to  the  strength 
of  the  soil.  Flax  of  good  length,  but  coarse,  may  be  raised  on  a  soil 
which  is  far  from  being  rich,  if  it  be  Avell  mellowed,  clear  of  weeds, 
and  sown  with  not  more  than  three  pecks  of  seeil  to  the  acre.  I  have 
seen  450  pounds  raised  from  one  bushel  of  seed  sown  on  better  than 
an  acre  and  a  half  of  ground.  Such  flax  is,  however,  not  so  well  fit- 
ted for  very  fine  spinning.  Where  the  stalks  stand  so  thin  as  to 
branch  at  the  roots  they  also  branch  widely  at  the  tops ;  and,  thou:;h 
more  seed  is  in  such  case  to  be  expected,  still  the  lint  will  be  less  in 
proportion  and  of  a  coarser  quality. 

If  flax  is  to  be  water-rotted,  it  should  be  pulled  as  soon  as  the  blos- 
soms have  fallen  oS";  and  at  this  time  the  coat  of  the  stalk  is  stronger 
than  afterwards.  The  ground  also  which  produces  the  crop  is  less 
exhausted  than  when  the  crop  has  stood  until  fully  ripe.  If  it  is  to  be 
rotted  on  the  ground  it  should  stand  until  nearly  ripe,  and  then  the 
a«ed  can  be  saved,  which  is  a  matter  of  some  consequence.     That 


60  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

which  is  designed  for  affording  seed  for  sowing  again,  should  have  tiie 
seeds  ripened  most  before  pulling. 

The  process  of  water-rotting  flax,  which  is  almost  wholly  practised 
iu  Ireland,  is  very  similar  to  that  of  water-rotting  hemp,  and  the  same 
precautions  are  requisite.  (Sff  article  Hemp.)  Probably  the  method 
of  rotting  by  boiling,  as  mentioned  there,  might  be  found  equally  pro- 
per for  flax.  The  method  common  in  this  country,  of  rotting  on  the 
ground,  is  so  well  known,  that  it  is  useless  to  say  any  thing  of  it  far- 
ther, than  that  the  flax  should  be  spread  thin  and  evenly,  and  that  it 
should  be  turned  over  when  abouthalfroUed,  otherwise  the  under  side 
will  be  more  rotted  than  the  upper. 

Flax  that  is  harsh  may  be  softened  iu  the  manner  directed  for  hemp. 
That  which  is  rotted  too  much  may  be  restored  to  its  strength  by  keep- 
ing it  a  few  years. 

It  is  a  very  nice  point  to  give  flax  the  proper  degree  of  roltiuj:;. 
If  rotted  too  much,  its  strength  is  impaired  for  present  use,  and  it 
wastes  more  in  cleaning;  and,  if  rotted  too  little,  a  great  addition  of 
labor  is  requisite  in  fitting  it  for  use.  That  which  is  coarse  will  rot 
quicker  than  that  which  is  fine;  these  should,  therefore,  be  kept  sepa- 
rate while  rotting,  in  order  that  the  latter  have  longer  time  for  tlii; 
purpose.  The  short  and  the  long  shouhl  also  be  sorted,  as  it  is  incon 
venient  to  have  them  mixed  in  dressing. 

In  some  parts  of  Europe  the  dressing  of  flax  is  a  business  carried  on 
by  itself,  and  water  machinery  is  generally  used  for  the  purpose.  3Iany 
kinds  of  labor  are  accelerated  by  being  divided  into  different  branches; 
as  it  is  found  that  those  folIo^^ing  a  particular  branch  become  more 
expert  in  it,  and  of  course  can  perform  the  labor  better,  and  at  the 
same  time  cheaper. 

The  farmer  perhaps  would  do  well  to  make  more  of  a  business 
of  raising  flax  when  he  becomes  engaged  in  it,  by  raising  enough  in  one 
season  to  last  him  two  or  three  jears;  he  would  then  have  a  greater 
inducement  to  go  more  spiritedly  into  the  most  approved  method  of 
cultivation,  from  the  conviction  that  cultivating  it  in  the  most  com- 
plete manner,  and  pretty  largely  at  a  time,  is  the  only  way  to  make 
the  business  profitable. 

Particular  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  seed  perfectly  clean, 
and  also  to  sow  it  evenly.  This  is  best  effected  by  first  sowing  one 
halfof  the  seed  over  the  whole  ground,  and  then  the  other  half  cross- 
wise.    It  should  be  sown  in  a  calm  lime. 

FLOODING  OF  LANDS.  Where  swamp  land  is  to  be  cleared, 
and  it  can  be  flooded,  by  making  a  dam  at  the  outlet,  at  a  small  ex- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  61 

pense,  it  is  a  matter  of  ecouomy  to  atieacl  to  this,  as  in  this  vrzy  its 
growth  of  wood  can  be  completely  killed.  'J'his  may  also  be  per- 
formed on  lands  after  they  are  cleared,  for  the  purpose  of  killing  the 
grass,  if  it  be  bad,  in  order  with  more  ease  to  introduce  a  better  kind, 
or  a  better  sj'stem  of  culture.  Flooding;  also  serves,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  to  enrich  the  land ;  though  this  depends  chietly  on  the 
kind  of  water  with  which  it  is  flooded.  If  it  contain  a  rich  sediment 
it  is  good,  but  if  destitute  of  this  it  is  of  no  use. 

See  article  Improving  of  Lands. 

FOALS,  OR  COLTS.  To  raise  the  best  colts,  the  first  step  is  to 
procure  the  best  breeding  mares,  then  put  them  to  the  best  horses, 
and  give  the  colts  good  keeping,  particularly  during  the  first  winter 
after  they  are  weaned.  The  proper  time  for  weaning  is  the  begin- 
ning of  foddering  time;  and  then  they  ought  to  be  put  in  a  stable  by 
themselves,  kept  on  gootl  haj^,  and  fed  regularly  twice  a  day  during 
winter  with  oats,  or  some  other  nourishing  food.  The  next  summer 
they  ought  to  have  a  good  dry  pasture. 

Colts  are  frequently  spoiled  by  poor  keeping  at  the  time  they 
require  the  best ;  and  this,  as  this  is  the  case  with  all  other  young 
animals,  is  during  the  first  winter.  After  this  they  do  not  require  bet- 
ter keeping  than  is  requisite  for  other  horses.  If  colts  be  not  well 
kept  the  first  winter  they  are  very  apt  to  get  stunted,  and  of  this  they 
never  wholly  recover.  If  farmers  would  pay  more  attention  to  keep- 
ing their  colts  in  the  best  manner,  as  well  as  a  due  attention  to  the 
selection  of  breeding  marcs,  and  o.  horses  for  covering,  we  should 
soon  find  the  breed  of  horses  in  our  country  much  improved. 

FODDER  AND  FODDERING.  Much  chaff  and  straAv,  that  is 
ofien  thrown  away,  may  with  a  little  pains  be  made  good  fodder  for 
rattle,  by  being  mixed  with  green  corn  stalks,  or  with  hay  not  fully 
dried,  and  sprinkling  a  little  salt  throughout  the  whole.  In  this  way 
the  moisture  and  much  of  the  sweetness  of  the  stalks,  or  hay,  is  absorb- 
ed by  the  straw  and  chaff,  and  with  the  addition  of  the  salt,  the  whole 
mass  is  converted  into  good  fodder.  Cattle  will  also  eat  straw  or 
chaff  very  well,  after  having  some  brine  sprinkled  over  it. 

Salting  all  fresh  hay  when  put  up,  is  a  great  addition  to  it,  as  it 
renders  it  more  nourishing  to  cattle,  and  of  course  will  go  further  in 
keeping  them.  A  respectable  farmer  of  this  countj',  (Herkimer,) 
who  keeps  a  large  stock  of  cattle,  says,  that  by  adding  eight  quarts  of 
salt  to  every  ton  of  h«y,  he  is  certain  that  a  ton  thus  salted,  will  go  as 
far  as  a  ton  and  a  quarter  that  has  not  been  salted.  At  the  same 
time,  hay  may  be  put  into  the  mow,  when  salted,  in  a  much  greener 


62  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

state  than  without  it ;  and  when  taken  out  will  be  found  almost  as 
green  and  apparently  as  fresh  as  when  first  stowed  away. 

Hay  which  is  stored  in  narrow  mows,  or  on  scaffolds,  will  keep  well 
with  less  drying  than  that  which  is  put  into  large  mows.  To  prevent 
hay  from  damaging  in  a  large  mow,  some  recommend  a  barrel  or  a 
stuffed  sack  to  be  placed  in  the  center,  and  gradually  raised  as  the 
mow  is  raised ;  this  forms  an  opening  in  the  middle  through  which 
ike  steam  of  the  heated  hay  can  pass  off,  and  thereby  prevent  it  from 
being  mow-burnt.  Another  methwl  is  to  pit  the  driest  hay  in  the 
center,  and  the  wettest  nearest  the  outsides. 

See  also,  article  Barn. 

Meadows  which  produce  wild  grass  ought  to  be  mowed  very  early, 
and  the  hay  well  salted  down,  and  in  this  way  cattle  will  eat  it  nearl}' 
as  well  as  herdsgrass. 

Stacking  of  hay  in  meadows,  to  be  fed  out  there,  is  a  poor  plan ;  as 
the  meadows  are  often  in  this  way  much  injured  by  the  treading  of 
the  cattle;  and  even  when  this  is  not  the  case  much  hay  is  generally 
wasted,  and  the  dung  of  the  cattle  turns  to  little  or  no  account.  The 
farmer  ought  always  to  have  sufficient  room  in  his  barn,  and  hay 
houses,  to  hold  all  his  hay:  or  if  he  has  not  this  he  ought  to  stack  his 
hay  adjoining  his  barn,  and  then  it  can  be  easily  thrown  in  at  once 
when  his  barn  is  emptied. 

Foddering  should  not  be  commenced  till  it  is  really  necessary,  for 
when  the  cattle  have  been  taught  to  expect  it  they  will  neglect  their 
other  feeding.  Fodder  at  first  in  the  mornings  when  the  frost  is  oi 
the  ground.  Neat  cattle  should  not  yet  be  housed  but  horses  should. 
In  cold  rains  they  should  however  be  sheltered,  as  these  are  more  hurt- 
ful than  cold  weather. 

The  meanest  fodder  should  not  be  dealt  out  first,  but  leave  this  for 
severer  weather.  If  the  stock  of  fodder  is  too  scanty  for  the  stock  of 
cattle,  don't  pinch  them  in  the  forepart  of  the  winter;  they  can  bet- 
ter endure  scanty  living  when  thejr  have  become  hardened  to  the 
rigors  of  the  season. 

Some  farmers  feeU  their  straw  entirely  to  some  of  the  hardiest  of 
the  youn^  cattle,  and  for  this  purpose  keep  them  by  themselves,  with- 
out suffering  them  to  taste  any  other  food,  l»y  which  means  they  wil! 
keep  toleral)ly  well ;  but  perhaps  the  better  way  is  to  lay  aside  the 
straw,  when  threshed,  with  some  brine  sprinkled  over  each  layer,  so 
as  to  give  a  degree  of  saltness  to  the  whole  mass,  and  after  it  has  lain 
a  while,  to  occasionally  feed  it  out  to  all  the  neat  cattl«.     This  will 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  63 

answer  in  place  of  salting  them,  and  at  times  they  will  eat  this  food 
with  a  good  relish. 

It  should  be  remembered,  that  cattle  ought  not  to  be  kept  constant- 
ly on  salted  fodder,  for  in  that  case  they  grow  tired  of  it ;  a  change  of 
food,  sometimes  salt,  and  sometiiues  fresh,  is  best. 

Too  much  fodder  should  never  be  laid  before  cattle  at  once ;  rather 
let  them  have  a  little  at  a  time,  and  be  fed  the  oftener.  By  constantly 
breathing  on  their  food  it  becomes  less  palatable,  and  for  this  reason 
they  will  eat  that  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  open  air  and  winds, 
after  they  have  rejected  it  in  the  stable. 

Cattle  which  run  out  during  winter  should  have  a  shelter,  and  a  rack 
under  it  to  hold  their  fodder.  By  this  means  most  of  their  dung  being 
dropped  under  the  shelter,  will  be  preserved  from  the  rains,  and  will 
on  that  account  be  much  better  than  that  which  has  been  more  ex- 
posed. 

Cows  that  are  near  calving  should  not  be  confined  to  their  stalls, 
but  each  should  have  a  separate  apartment  and  be  kept  without  tying. 

Horses  keep  best,  on  well  cured  clover  hay,  though  herdsgrass  and 
some  others  are  very  good  for  them.  If  thej"^  are  to  be  fed  with  Indian 
corn,  or  other  hard  grain,  it  should  be  well  soaked,  boiled,  or  ground, 
before  it  is  given  them.  They  may  be  kept  in  good  order  by  feeding 
them  with  raw  potatoes  or  carrots,  washed  clean,  though  they  would 
be  more  nourishing  if  they  could  conveniently  be  fed  on  them  when 
boiled. 

Sec  further,  article  Neat  Cattle. 

FOLDING  OF  LAND.  Folding  sheep  on  fields  which  are  plough- 
ed up  for  fallow  land,  is  a  very  good  practice ;  as  in  this  way  the  land 
receives  all  the  manure  that  is  made  from  their  dung  and  urine,  with- 
out the  trouble  of  any  previous  preparation,  or  carting,  &c.  But 
folding  sheep  on  small  pieces  of  ground,  says  Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  will 
do  the  shee[»  as  much  injury  as  it  will  benefit  the  land.  The  reason 
of  this  seems  to  be,  that  for  sheep  to  lie  on  ground  on  which  thej-^  have 
previously  lain  and  dunged  for  several  nights,  becomes  hurtful  to 
them  for  pretty  much  the  same  reasons  that  they  are  injured  where 
too  many  of  them  are  placed  together  in  one  pen  during  winter  ; 
their  own  breath  and  the  smell  of  their  excrements  are  injurious  to 
each  other.  But  where  they  are  folded  in  a  larger  field,  they  choose 
a  fresh  place  to  lie  down  every  night,  and  in  this  way  eventually  go 
over  the  whole  field.  It  is  said,  that  in  this  way,  one  hundred  sheep 
will,  in  one  season,  sufficiently  manure  a  fallow  of  eight  acres  for  a 


61  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

good  crop  of  wheat.  The  manure  thus  made,  sliould  be  frequently 
plouffhed,  or  harrowed  under,  to  prevent  much  of  its  evaporation. 

FoUling  cows,  &C.  on  land,  can  only  be  done  to  advantage  on 
small  pieces  of  ground  designed  for  cabbages,  turnips,  &:c. ;  for  if  put 
into  a  large  field,  they  will  almost  always  lie  down  on  nearly  the 
same  spot. 

See  article   Manures,  for   an   advantageous   method   of   folding 

cows,  &:c. 

A  low  spot  of  grass  ground,  which  is  inclining  to  bear  coarse  wild 
grass,  will  be  much  helped  by  folding  sheep  on  it,  to  the  injury  of  the 
sheep,  however,  and  so  will  a  dry  spot  by  folding  cows  on  it. 

When  ground  is  folded  for  raising  turnips,  instead  of  sowing  this 
crop  the  first  year,  let  it  be  frequently  ploughed,  in  order  to  kill  all 
the  weeds,  and  sown  early  with  flax  the  next  spring,  and  then  with 
turnips,  after  the  flax  is  taken  oS".  Great  crops  of  flax  may  in  this 
manner  be  raised,  and  by  again  mellowing  the  ground,  after  the  flax 
crop,  a  very  good  cron  of  turnips  may  be  raised. 

FOOD  OF  PLANTS.  Every  seed  contains  a  plant  in  embryo; 
when  it  has  acquired  its  full  size  and  shape  it  is  then  a  perfect  plant. 
In  the  mean  time  it  derives  from  the  air,  the  earth,  and  from  water, 
certain  food  which  nourishes  it  and  causes  it  to  grow  to  maturity. 

From  the  air  it  absorbs  hydrogene  gas  and  the  septous  principle,  or 
azote ;  and  for  this  reason  will  grow  most  thrifty  in  large  cities,  or  in 
the  vicinity  of  animal  putridity.  Let  any  putrid  decaying  flesh  be 
laid  in  a  field  of  growing  plants,  and  those  which  are  nearest  to  the  pu- 
trid matter  will  grow  much  faster  than  those  at  a  distance,  because 
those  nearest  have  a  greater  chance  of  absorbing  the  impure  air  emit- 
ted from  it,  than  those  growing  farther  ofif. 
See  further,  article  Air. 

From  the  earth,  plants  derive  some  of  their  component  parts,  as  dis- 
covered by  chemical  analysis ;  such  as  earth,  salts,  oil,  «tc.  and  from 
water,  whether  mixed  with  the  earth,  or  otherwise,  they  imbibe  the 
juices  or  sap,  which  is  so  essential  to  their  existence. 
See  article  Sap. 

Some  manures,  it  would  seem,  operate  by  attracting  matter  which 
is  foml  for  plants  ;  such  as  gypsum,  which  is  supposfd  to  attract  nitre 
and  mobture.  Ashes  afford  salts  and  attract  nitre.  Other  manures 
again  aflbrd,  in  part,  the  food  of  plants,  and  at  the  same  time  assist 
them  in  obtaining  more  from  the  earth  by  opening  it  for  the  more 
easy  extension  of  their  roots  -.  such  as  barn  dung  and  manures  of  that 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  It 

lised  in  Great-Britain;  it  being  necessary  there  to  raise  much  of  their 
more  tender  fruit  by  the  sides  ot'  walls,  made  very  high  tor  the  pur- 
pose, round  the  fruit-gardens,  and  there  the  keeping  of  some  kinds  of 
fruit  trees  in  the  dwarf  state,  is  the  more  necessary. 

Fruit-trees  are  subject  to  a  disease,  called  the  caiikcr.  It  occasions 
the  bark  to  grow  rough  and  scabby,  and  turns  the  wood  affected  to  a 
rusty  brown  colour.  It  will  sometimes  kill  the  tree,  if  not  remedied 
in  due  season. 

Tliis  disease  may  arise  from  various  causes;  from  bad  pruning; 
from  dead  shoots  left  on  the  tree  ;  from  frosts  killing  the  last  year's 
shoots,  &:c. 

The  diseased  parts  are  to  be  entirely  cut  away,  till  nothing  but 
sound  Tvhitc  wood  remains ;  or  if  the  disease  be  merely  iu  the  bark,  the 
outer  bark  must  be  cut  away,  and  if  ihe  inner  bark  be  also  aiiVcted, 
which  is  to  be  known  by  its  exhibiting  small  black  spots  like  the  dote 
of  a  pen ;  cut  all  away  that  is  thus  afiecteJ,  and  let  the  composition 
be  applied,  as  before  directed. 

Fruit-trees,  of  the  stone  kind,  are  frequently  diseased  with  pan, 
which  arises  from  bad  pruning,  bruises,  and  other  causes.  The  dis- 
eased parts  are  to  be  cut  away,  and  the  composition  applied  as 
before. 

Thus  much  for  Mr.  Forsyth.  Those  who  are  anxious  to  be  more 
intimately  acquainted  with  this  author,  will  do  well  to  i)urchase  his 
book.  In  the  plates  annexed  to  it  are  exhibited  many  specimens  of 
his  ingenuity. 

If  fruit-trees  be  suffered  to  run  much  to  suckers,  these  will  creatly 
injure  their  bearing.  Let  them,  therefore,  be  kept  clear  of  these.  All 
straight  upright  shoots  from  the  limbs  of  trees,  should  also  be  taken 
away,  for  these  bear  no  fruit ;  though  in  time  their  lateral  branches 
may  bear  some.  Lateral  branches  are  always  the  bearers,  and  such 
branches  as  do  not  bear,  only  serve  to  rob  the  bearing  branches  of  their 
requisite  nourishment,  and  should  therefore  be  taken  awaj.  The 
trees  should  also  be  cleared  of  all  dead  and  decaying  branches,  and  of 
all  cross  branches  that  rub  against  each  other. 

Young  api)le,  and  plum-trees  in  particular,  are  apt  to  get  covered 
with  what  are  usually  called  lice,  being  an  inanimate  substance  re- 
aembling  an  insect,  of  the  colour,  and  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  a  grain 
of  flaxseed,  but  narrower.  Where  the  bark  is  thickly  covered  with 
these  the  growth  of  the  tree  will  be  very  much  impeded,  and  some- 
times  it  will  be  killed,  if  they  are  not  removed.     They'are   to  be 


n  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

scraped  off  with  a  knife.  iMoss  ought  also  to  be  scraped  off,  a«  it 
greatly  injures  the  growth  of  the  tree. 

For  keeping  off  moss,  lice,  and  every  thing  else  that  should  be  kept 
off  from  young  apple,  and  some  other  fruit-trees,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
white-wash  their  bodies,  and  princi()al  limbs,  every  spring,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  lime  and  water;  or,  perhajis,  Forsyth's  composition,  before 
mentioned,  would  be  equally  good.  He,  however,  recommends  for 
this  purpose,  a  mixture  of  old  urine  and  soajvsuds.  Where  young 
fruit-trees  stand  in  sward  ground,  the  sward  should  be  cut  awa^^ 
from  about  them,  and  the  ground  about  their  roots  loosened  ever  j 
spring. 

It  is  found,  that  the  seeds  of  the  apple,  and  probably  all  other  fruit- 
trees,  which  are  brought  from  Europe,  here,  will  grow  lar;j;er  than 
those  of  our  own.  Probably,  this  is  merely  the  effect  of  a  change  of 
seed ,  if  so,  our  seeds  sown  there  might  produce  the  same  inequality. 
Be  this  as  is  may,  it  is  by  no  means  certain,  that  the  largest  fruit-trees 
are  the  most  profitable  to  the  acre;  as  the  larger  they  are,  the  more 
ground  each  must  have. 

See  further,  the  articles  which  treat  of  the  various  kinds  of  fruit- 
.  trees. 

FULLER'S  THISTLE;  (Dipracufi.)  The  heads  of  these  are 
used  for  raising  the  knap  on  fine  wollen  cloths.  From  their  present 
scarcity  in  our  infant  manufactories,  they  command  a  great  price,  and 
are,  therefore,  worthy  of  attention. 

Sow  the  seeds  at  the  rate  of  about  a  peck  to  the  acre,  about  the 
first  of  May,  on  ground  properly  prejiared  l>y  ploughing  and  harrow- 
ing.  Keep  down  the  weeds  by  hoeing,  and  let  the  plants  stand  al>out 
a  foot  asunder;  all  the  rest  are  to  I)p  cut  away.  Hoe  them  as  often  as 
the  weeds  rise.  The  heads  do  not  form  until  the  second  summer. 
When  they  are  fit  to  cut,  which  will  be  about  the  first  of  August,  let 
them  then  be  cut,  tied  in  bundles,  and  dried,  undercover,  or  in  the 
open  air,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather. 

The  heads  hare  sold  in  our  woollen  factories  for  a  cent  a  piece, 
and  sometimes  double  that  price.  An  acre,  at  this  rate,  vrould  amount 
tn  several  hundred  dollars. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  69 

there,  perhaps,  some  parts  of  it  may  be  found  more  pleasant  in  theory 
than  profitable  in  practice.  His  composition  lor  curing  defects  iu  trees, 
and  restoriugold  decayed  ones,  and  tlie  methoil  of  preparing  it  shall 
be  first  noticed,  and  is  as  follows : 

Take  a  bushel  of  fresh  cow-dung,  half  a  bushel  of  lime  rubbish 
from  the  ceilings  of  old  rooms,  which  is  best,  or  pounded  chalk,  or  old 
slaked  lime  will  answer,  half  a  bushel  of  wood  ashes,  and  a  sixteenth 
of  river  sand ;  sift  the  three  last  articles  fine  before  they  are  mixed  i 
work  them  well  together  by  beating,  &c.  so  as  completely  to  mix 
them  :  Then  reduce  the  mass  to  the  consistence  of  thick  paint,  by 
mixing  with  it  a  suflBcient  quantity  of  urine  and  soap-suds,  so  as  that 
it  can  be  used  Avith  a  brush.  A  good  coat  of  this  is  to  be  applied  to 
the  naked  wood  where  a  limb  is  cut  off,  or  the  wood  otherwise  laid 
bare,  and  the  powder  of  wood  ashes  and  burfit  bones  is  to  be  sprinkled 
over  this  and  gently  pressed  down  with  the  hand.  \S  hen  any  of  the 
composition  is  left  for  future  use  it  is  to  be  covered  with  urine  to  pre- 
serve it  from  the  atmosphere  which  injures  it. 

With  this  composition  Mr.  Forsyth  restores  old  rotten  decayed 
trees  to  a  flourishing  state.  In  order  to  do  this,  all  the  rotten  and 
dead  part  of  the  tree  is  first  cut  away  and  scooped  out,  quite  down  into 
the  roots,  till  you  come  to  the  live  wood,  and  then  smoothed,  and  the 
edges  next  the  live  bark  rounded  off.  Then  the  composition  is  laid 
on  with  a  brush,  and  covered  as  before  directed,  with  the  powder. 
As  the  bark  on  the  edges  grows  over  this  covered  wood,  it  works  off 
the  composition  and  supplies  its  place,  till  at  length  the  bark  of  the 
two  edges  meet  and  grow  together.  If  the  growing  bark  should  raise 
up  any  flakes  of  the  composition,  so  as  to  expose  the  wood,  let  them 
be  pressed  down  with  the  finger  some  rainy  day  when  the  composition 
is  pliable.  Where  a  tree  would  be  too  much  weakened  by  cutting 
away  all  its  dead  wood  at  once,  cut  only  a  part  away  next  the  edges, 
and  as  the  bark  covers  this  cut  away  more.  Where  limbs  are  cut  off 
let  the  stumps  be  pared  smooth  and  the  edges  rounded,  before  the 
composition  is  laid  on.  He  saj-s,  this  should  always  be  applied  where- 
ever  a  limh  is  cut  off,  in  order  to  preserve  the  tree  from  rotting  at 
such  places. 

He  makes  mention  of  many  old  decayed  trees,  some  of  whose  trunks 
were  rotted  away  two-thirds,  and  half  of  the  roots  gone,  which  he 
restored  to  a  sound  flourishing  state  by  the  process  above  described. 
It  is,  however  seiid,  that  some  who  have  tried  the  experiment  in  this 
country  have  not  been  successful ;  but  whether  this  may  be  ascribed 
to  a  want  of  skill  in  the  performance,  or  to  a  difference  in  climate,  vf. 


7a  PARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

perhaps  not  well  ascertained.  Perhaps  the  composition  ought  to  b© 
rarietl  in  its  materials,  so  as  to  be  better  adapted  to  the  greater  degree 
of  beat  and  dryness  which  prevails  in  our  atmosphere.  He  also  makes 
mention  of  shaving  off  all  the  caukery  bark  ol  old  stunted  trees,  then 
scarifying  the  remaining  bark,  where  they  were  bark  bound,  and  cov- 
ering the  whole  with  his  composition,  which  produced  a  surprising 
alteration  in  their  growth. 

In  lieu  of  the  above  composition,  the  following  has  been  success- 
fullj  D>ed  about  Albany  for  healing  the  wood,  and  for  covering  the 
stock  in  grafting :  Take  two  parts  of  bees-wax,  one  of  rosin,  and  one 
of  hogs-lard;  melt  them,  and  blend  them  together  :  It  must  be  made 
soft  enough  to  put  it  on  with  the  hand  ;  and  let  it  be  laid  on  thickest 
rotrad  the  edges  and  thinly  in  the  middle.  If  it  becomes  too  soft 
during  the  heats  qf  summer  let  a  little  powdered  rosin  be  sprinkled 
over  it. 

UTr.  Forsyth's  method  of  heading  down  trees,  in  order  to  renovate 
their  growth,  and  to  procure  a  new  set  of  straight  thrifty  bearing  limbs,  * 
IK  as  follows:  First  take  off  one  or  two  of  the  princijial  limbs, just 
above  an  (Tje  ;  let  them  be  cut  slaoting  dow  nwards,  with  the  sides 
where  the  eye  is  the  highest:  Pare  and  round  off  the  ends  of  the 
ftamps,  and  cover  them  with  the  composition  :  Presently,  sprouts 
win  start  out  from  the  eyes,  which  are  to  be  trained  aud  pruned  for 
new  bearing  limbs.  When  these  have  gipwn  a  little,  cut  off  more  of 
vhe  limbs,  and  go  through  the  same  process  with  them,  and  so  on,  till 
Iheyare  all  taken  off.  Thus,  a  new  set  of  thrifty  limbs  are  given  to 
the  tree,  which  v. ill  be  lietter  bearers  than  the  old.  The  new  growths 
roon  cover  the  stumps  so  as  to  leave  only  a  slight  cicatrix.  He  speaks 
of  heading  down  some  trees  at  once,  and  particularly  recommends  the 
heading  dnwn  of  all  young  trees  while  in  the  nursery,  by  taking  oflf 
the  whole  trunk  a  little  above  the  ground,  and  in  the  manner  above 
directed,  which  he  says  will  greatly  improve  their  future  growth,  and 
make  them  better  bearers.  He  mentions,  particularly,  some  young 
oaks,  that  he  thus  headed  down,  which  afterwards  grew  more  than  as 
fast  again  as  those  which  were  not. 

He  also  describes  a  method  of  pruning  the  limbs  at  their  bearing 
ends.  This  is  to  take  off  the  most  prominent  twig,  when  it  has  become 
tiredoi  bearing,  close  to  the  next  lateral  branch,  and  then  this  shoots 
fonvard  and  becomes  the  bearer;  when  this  has  in  like  manner  become 
fired  of  bearing,  the  limb  is  to  be  taken  off,  back  at  the  next  lateral 
branch,  aud  the  next  shoots  forward  again,  and  soon.  This  may  be 
a  good  plan  to  keep  trees  in  the  dwarf  stale,  which  is  so  much  prac 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  €17 

For  raising  oaks,  which  are  an  essential  article,  let  the  acorns  be 
ploughed  under,  with  a  shoal  furrow,  in  the  fall ;  or  they  may  then 
be  buried  in  a  bed  of  earth,  and  after  they  have  sprouted  in  the  spring, 
planted  as  before,  at  the  distance  of  about  a  foot  from  each  other. 
They  may  also  be  planted  in  the  sward,  at  the  depth  of  about  two 
inches,  by  digging  little  holes  for  the  purpose.  Let  the  weeds  be  kept 
down  till  the  young  growth  of  the  forest  sliall  have  overpowered 
them.  The  strongest  plants  will  keep  down  the  weakest,  and  thus 
sufficiently  thin  the  trees  as  they  increase  in  size ;  but  where  a  growth 
for  timber  is  intended,  let  the  weakest  be  cut  away  to  give  more 
room  for  the  strongest,  after  they  have  attained  some  considerable 
size.  Let  no  cattle  be  admitted  into  the  forest  until  the  trees  are 
beyond  their  reach :  and,  at  no  time  whatever,  where  young  succes- 
sive growths  for  fuel  is  intended. 

FOUNDERING  op  HORSES.  We  usually  say  that  a  horse  is 
foundered,  when  his  legs  and  feet  have  become  stiffened  and  sore,  by 
eating  too  large  a  quantity  of  hard  grain  at  once.  The  best  remedy 
for  this,  is  exercise  by  riding  ;  and  in  addition  to  this  let  the  bits  of 
his  bridle  be  wound  round  with  a  rag,  into  which  let  as  much  human 
ordure  be  put  as  it  will  hold.  Put  this  into  his  mouth,  and  let  him 
€hew  upon  it  v/hile  riding  him,  and  in  due  season  repeat  the  dose,  if 
necessary. 

But  there  is  a  disorder  of  the  feet  of  horses,  in  which  they  are  also 
said  to  be  foundered.  This  is  a  painful  disease;  the  horse  affected 
with  it  draws  himself  up  in  a  heap  and  is  loth  to  move.  It  is  occasion- 
ed by  standing  in  cold  water,  after  being  heated  with  exercise,  or 
sometimes  even  by  standing  still  in  the  stable  several  days  after  ex- 
ercise, sometimes  by  bad  shoeing,  or  by  bruises  on  the  legSo 

In  this  case,  if  a  remedy  be  not  speedily  applied,  a  gathering  will 
take  place  in  the  feet,  and  the  hoofs  will  be  cast  off;  by  which  the 
use  of  the  horse  will  be  lost  for  some  time.  The  remedy  is  to  slit  the 
hoofs  open  from  top  to  bottom,  so  that  blood  will  follow  pretty  freely. 
In  order  to  cure  these  wounds  again,  apply  tar,  turpentine  and  honey, 
melted  together,  with  a  fourth  part  of  the  spirits  of  wine.  Let  pledgets 
made  of  tow,  be  soaked  in  this,  and  then  laid  in  the  chinks,  and  the 
foot  bound  up.  These  are  not  to  be  opened  for  two  days;  and  then 
let  fresh  applications  be  made  every  day  till  the  channels  in  the 
hoofs  be  grown  up. 

If  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  also  drawn,  it  must  be  served  in  a  similar 
ttianner.     A  piece  of  leather  should  be  laid  over  the  sole,  a  \i  th 


68  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

wbole  foot  so  bouQd  up  with  strong  bandages,  that  the  applicatioos 
may  not  t>e  displaced. 

FREEZING.  ETery  hard  stiCF  soil  when  thrown  up  in  ridges  ia 
<he  I3II,  and  mellowed  by  the  frosts,  receives  thereby  an  essential  ad- 
dition to  its  fertility.  A  winter's  Irost  is  not  however  always  suffici- 
ent to  mellow  the  largest  clods:  these  should,  therefore,  be  broken 
in  niect^  in  the  fall,  in  order  to  derive  full  benefit  from  the  frosts. 

A  farmer  of  Nea-Jersey.  some  years  since,  trench-j)loughed  an  ex- 
hausted field  of  stiff  soil  in  the  fall ;  cross-ploughed  a  [>art  of  it,  and  ia 
that  part  broke  the  lumps  to  pieces.  In  the  spring  the  field  was  all 
ploughed  equally  and  sown  with  barley  and  clover.  The  part  on 
Khich  the  most  labor  had  thus  been  bestowed  was  in  fine  order  when 
sown,  and  yielded  about  thirty  bushels  an  acre  c^  barley ;  the  other 
part  was  still  in  lumps,  the  frosts  not  having  been  found  sufficient  to 
mellow  them  entirely,  and  the  product  of  barley  was  only  about 
twenty  bushels  an  acre.  The  same  difiference  was  afterwards  ob- 
served in  the  clover. 

But  this  field,  %vith  this  stratum  of  criide  earth  thrown  uppermost, 
would  have  yiehled  little  or  nothing  the  next  spring,  and  until  mel- 
lowed and  fertilized  by  summer  suns,  had  it  not  been  mellowed  and 
fertilized  by  winter  frosts. 

Another  benefit  derived  from  freezing  is,  that  it  serves  to  restor* 
bII  soils  to  a  due  state  of  sensibility  to  the  operation  of  beat. 

Heat  is  the  stimulant  of  soils ;  but,  as  is  the  case  with  all  stimu* 
lants,  the  longer  it  is  applied  without  intermission,  the  less  powerful 
it  becomes ;  particularly  in  the  production  of  grasses  and  other  plants 
which  are  natural  to  northern  climates.  Thus,  a  degree  of  heat 
which  in  the  fall  wil!  not  be  found  suffi'-.ient  to  make  those  plants  grow, 
irill  make  them  grow  rapidly  when  applied  to  them  in  the  spring.  In 
this  respect,  therefore,  freering,  which  is  only  the  absence  of  heat, 
serves  as  a  kind  of  rerDrafive  to  the  soil  and  refits  it  for  the  repro- 
duction of  those  plants.  Thus  freezing  is  a  fertilizer  o(  stiff  soils,  and 
a  restorer  of  all,  by  renewing  their  sensibility  10  the  effects  of  heat. 

Vheo  plants  hare  been  frost-hitlen,  while  jrtowing,  they  may  be 
rcstoretl  by  sprinkling  them  plentifully  while  in  the  frozen  state  with 
brine,  or  with  water  containing  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac,  which  it 
better. 

FRUIT-TREES.  Mr.  Forsyth's  essay  on  these  has  been  justly 
esteemed  for  i»  originality  and  research.  It  is,  however,  a  produc- 
tion best  calculated  for  the  country  where  it  was  imtten ;  and  even 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  65 

kind.  Others,  perhaps,  assist  directly  in  supplying  food  ;  sUch  as 
salts,  blood,  [lutrid  flesh,  &:c.  Others  again  merely  serve  to  open 
earths  which  are  too  solid  to  admit  the  roots  in  search  of  food ;  such 
as  sand,  rotten  uootl,  saw  dust,  &:c.  applied  to  clays.  And,  lastly, 
clay  applied  to  sand,  assists  in  part,  by  supplying  additional  food, 
and  partly  by  enabling  the  soil  to  retain  a  sufficiency  of  water  to  sup» 
ply  plants  with  the  requisite  proportion  of  this  article. 

Some  plants  extract  their  food  principally  from  the  air  ;  some 
mostly  from  air  and  water,  and  others  principally  from  the  earth.  The 
hyacinth,  and  many  other  plants  will  grow  well  with  air  and  water, 
without  the  assistance  of  earth.  But  generally  speaking,  plants  re- 
tjuire  the  united  assistance  of  air,  water,  and  earth,*  and  from  these 
they  extract  that  food  which  is  requisite  to  bring  them  to  perfection. 

Some  plants  require  most  of  one  kind  of  food  from  the  earth,  and 
some  another.  Tap-rooted  plants,  again,  derive  their  nourishment 
from  a  greater  dei)th,  while  those  with  fibrous  roots  merely  extract 
from  the  surface.  Hence,  the  earth,  as  the  common  parent  of  plants, 
may  become  exhausted  in  continually  producing  some  kinds,  while 
it  may  still  be  well  fitted  for  the  production  of  others  ;  and  hence,  in 
some  instances,  arises  the  necessity  of  a  change  of  crops. 

See  article  Change  of  Ceops. 

FOREST.  Every  fartn  ought  to  have  a  piece  of  woodland,  or 
ibrest,  sufficient  for  fuel  and  other  purposes.  Raising  timber  for  the 
pur|)ose  of  fencing,  will  not  often  be  found  advisable ;  farmers  must 
eventually  depend  on  making  stone  walls,  or  hedges,  for  the  purpose 
of  enclosing  their  lands.  But  wood  and  timber  sufficient  for  fuel,  for 
building,  for  carriages,  and  implements  of  farming,  cannot  be  dispensed 
with.  Of  these  the  farmer  will  always  find  it  most  advantageous  to 
keep  the  requisite  stock  himself,  and  not  rely  on  others  for  purchasing 
it.  Nor  is  it  advisable  to  have  his  woodland  separate,  and  at  a  con= 
siderable  distance  from  his  farm ;  unless  it  be  in  parts  of  the  country 
where  part  of  the  lands  are  too  valuable  to  be  kept  in  wood,  and  other 
adjacent  parts  are  only  fit  for  that  purpose. 

When  the  farmer  is  clearing  up  his  farm,  he  ought  to  reserve  for 
woodlaud,  that  part  which  is  least  adapted  for  tillage,  or  for  grass. 
Land  which  is  swampy  with  a  thin  soil  over  a  sandy  bottom  ;  that  is 
rocky  and  hilly;  or  that  is  dry,  poor,  sandy,  or  very  gravelly,  may 
do  well  for  woodland,  while  it  would  answer  but  [>oorly  for  tillage. 

The  quantity  of  ground  to  be  set  apart  for  this  purpose  must  de- 
pend on  (he  SUV.  of  the  fiirm;  the  quality  of  the  soil  of  the  woodland  ; 
t^e nature  of  the  climate;  and,  frequently,  according  to  the  dpmand 

9 


66  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

or  market  for  uood ;  for  in  some  cases,  it  may  be  found  more  profitabtc 
to  keep  tolerable  gootl  land  in  wood  than  in  any  other  cultivation. 
Of  the  natural  growth  of  wood,  it  >\ill  require  as  much  as  twenty  acres, 
or  more,  to  keep  two  fires,  according  to  the  common  method  of  using 
wood  for  fuel ;  but  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  have  sitting  rooms  warm- 
ed, and  all  the  cooking  and  other  apparatus  of  the  kitchen  so  contrived 
as  not  to  require  more  than  one  third  of  the  w  ood  that  is  commonly  used. 

Sec  article  Warming  of  Rooms. 

To  thicken  a  forest,  or  to  prevent  its  becoming  too  thin,  cattle 
should  be  kept  out  of  it  at  all  seasons.  Acorns  ought  also  to  be  planted 
in  every  part  that  becomes  destitute  of  growing  wood.  If  woodland 
be  suffered  to  become  so  thrn  that  the  sun  can  get  in  and  cause  the 
ground  to  be  covered  v»ith  a  sward  of  grass,  this  will  prevent  the  fur- 
ther growth  of  young  timber;  and  in  this  way  the  ground  eventually 
becomes  9lrip[>ed  of  all  its  growth.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case 
with  the  locust,  as  it  encourages  the  growth  of  grass  amongst  it,  and 
in  this  situation  grows  very  rapidly.  Perhaps  the  farmer  will  find, 
when  he  is  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  planting  wood  lor  fuel,  that 
this  tree  will  answer  his  purpose  best^ 

See  article Loclst. 

The  Lombardy  po^)lar,  aho  grows  very  rapidly,  is  easily  raised 
front  cuttings,  and  when  cut  and  dried,  will  answ  er  tolerably  well  for 
fuel. 

The  easiest  method  of  raising  the  locust,  is  as  follows:  Plant,  in 
the  first  instance,  about  fifteen  or  twenty  trees  on  an  acre ;  when 
they  have  got  to  be  tv»  elve  or  fifteen  feet  high,  and  their  roots  w  ell  ex- 
tended, run  straggling  furrows  through  the  ground,  and  wherever  the 
roots  are  cut  with  the  plough,  new  trees  will  start  up,  and  soon  stock 
the  whole  ground  with  a  plentiful  growth.  This  tree  has  been  but 
lately  infroiluced  into  general  use  in  France;  and  it  is  said  to  be 
there  valued  more  than  any  other  which  is  cultivated  in  that  country. 

Where  wood  is  raised  merely  for  fuel,  it  may  be  suffered  to  grow  as 
thick  as  it  will ;  it  becomes  sufficiently  thiuned  of  itself  as  it  grows 
larger;  but  where  oak,  or  any  other  trees  are  to  be  raised  for  timber, 
they  ought  to  stand  further  apart,  in  order  to  have  their  growth  rapid, 
and  of  course,  the  timber  firm  and  durable. 

If  wootls  are  old  and  decaying,  tli#  better  way  is  to  cut  all  off  as 
you  want  to  use  the  woo«l,  and  let  tn  entire  new  growth  start  up, 
which  will  grow  more  rapidlj'. 

Much  poor  exhausted  lands  in  this  country  should  be  planted  with 
forests,  to  supply  the  waste  of  wood  that  is  constantly  cncrecsing. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  73 


G. 


GARDENS.  These  are  distinguished  into  the  flower  garden,  the 
fruit  garden,  and  the  kitchen  garden.  I  shall  say  nothing  of  the 
flower  garden,  for  farming  has  nothing  to  do  with  flowers;  but  the 
fruit  and  kitchen  gardens  are  somewhat  more  substantial. 

It  is  best  to  have  the  fruit  and  kitchen  gardens  in  the  same  enclo- 
sure; but  the  plan,  too  often  observed,  of  blending  them  together  ia 
too  great  a  degree,  ought  to  be  avoided.  Fruit  trees  which  make 
considerable  shade,  must  be  injurious  to  the  growth  of  vegetables  in 
the  same  neighbourhood,  and  ought  therefore  to  be  cultivated  by  them- 
selves. Such  fruit  trees,  however,  which  make  but  little  shade,  as 
grapes,  currants,  quinces,  &c.  may  be  very  agreeably  intermixed 
with  the  growths  of  the  kitchen  garden. 

For  the  Fruit  Garden,  see  articles  Fruit  Trees,  Peaches,  Apri- 
cots, Quinces,  &c.  &c. 

A  kitchen  garden  well  stored  with  vegetables  is  highly  important 
to  the  farmer,  as  the  use  of  these  supercede  the  necessity  of  consum- 
ing much  meat,  a  practice  equally  inconsistent  with  economy  and 
with  good  health.  When  we  perceive  that  the  food  of  the  cottagers 
of  Ireland  is  principally  milk  and  potatoes ;  that  these  are  a  race  of 
people  which  are  healthy,  robust,  well  made,  with  strong,  quick  and 
ardent  powers  of  mind ; — and  when  we  perceive  that  those  savage  na- 
tions, which,  for  want  of  other  food,  are  obliged  to  subsist  entirely'  on 
fish  or  other  meat,  are  generally  the  most  stupid,  squalid  and  ill  made, 
we  certainly  cannot  draw  very  favorable  conclusions  in  favor  of  eat- 
ing great  quantities  of  flesh. 

It  is  advisable  to  have  a  close  high  fence  round  your  kitchen  and 
fruit  gardens.  This  in  the  first  place  renders  every  thing  within  it 
secure  from  pillagers,  and  also  serves  to  keep  out  fowls.  Another  be- 
nefit consists  in  keeping  off  the  strong  cold  winds  of  the  spring,  which 
are  very  injurious  to  the  young  plants,  and  aL-o  to  the  fruit,  which  is 
then  about  putting  forth. 

Dung  that  is  old,  and  destitute  of  the  seeds  of  weed^,  ought  only  to 
be  used  in  manuring  a  kitchen  garden,  and  the  ground  ought  not  to  be 
ploughed,  but  deeply  dug,  for  all  vegetables  which  root  deeply  in  the 
ground.     Nothing  further  need  be  said  with  regard  to  the  kitche.T 

10 


74  far:\ier'S  assistant. 

garden,  than  that  a  loose  mellow  soil,  with  a  southerly  exposure,  ia^the 
best;  that  it  ought  to  he  ke[>t  rich  ;  that  as  fast  as  weeds  rise,  thej 
ought  to  be  extirpated ;  and  thai  no  weeds  ought  to  be  suffered  to  go 
to  seed  within  the  garden. 

If  the  garden  l)e  of  a  wettish,  or  stiff  soil,  it  will  be  greatly  benefit- 
ted by  being  thrown  up  into  high  ridges  in  the  fall ;  at  the  same  time 
this  will  assist  some  in  destroyiug  the  seeds  of  weeds,  but  patticularly 
in  destroying  insects  which  may  i)e  breeding  in  the  soil. 
GAKGET.     6Vf  article  .- eat  Cattle. 

GER3I1NAT10.N  OF  Pi^A.^TS.  By  experiments  made  by  Mr. 
Humbolt,  in  1793,  it  was  found  that  seeds  which  require  thirty  hours 
to  germinate  in  common  water,  could  be  made  to  germinate  in  six 
hours  in  oryrenateil  nmiiatic  acid  gas  mixed  with  water;  and  by  add- 
ing •'  the  stimulus  oi  calork  (heat.)  to  that  otthe  oxygene,  he  was  en- 
auled  stiJl  more  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  vegetation."  He  took 
the  seeds  o.  garden  cresses,  peas,  French  beans,  garden  lettuce,  mig- 
nouette  ;  equal  quantities  of  which  were  thrown  into  pure  water,  and 
the  oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  at  a  temperature  ol  bS°  Fahreuheit. 
Cresses  exhiuited  germs  in  three  hours  in  this  acid,  while  noae  were 
seen  iu  the  water  till  the  end  of  twenty-six  hours. 

13y  means  ol  this  stimulant,  seeds  which  were  more  than  an  hundred 
years  old,  were  made  to  vegetate  ;  as  were  other  seeds  which  had 
been  kept  lor  thirty  years  at  the  botanical  garden  at  Vienna,  which 
had  resisted  every  other  means  used  tor  that  purpose. 

The  application  of  this  may  be  ibund  useful  in  planting  Indiau 
corn,  as  it  will  lie  sooner  out  of  the  way  ol  birds  and  squirrels  ;  and, 
wheu  the  first  planting  has  lailed,  or  when  birds,  6cc.  have  pulled  up 
the  corn,  this  method  would  greatly  accelerate  the  growth  of  a  second 
planting.  It  :s  also  useiul  lor  many  kinds  of  garden  seeds  which  have 
been  kept  over  one  year.  ProbaUly,  the  seeds  of  the  American  thorn 
might,  also,  in  his  way,  be  made  to  vegetate  readily,  and  that  bemp> 
seed  might  thus  be  made  to  grow  after  the  first  year. 

Another  method  of  makiug  old  seeds  germinate  more  readily,  is 
to  immerse  them  iu  water,  nearly  boiling  hot,  for  the  space  of  half  a 
minute,  then  suddenly  cooling  them  by  exposure  to  the  air,  ami  sow 
them  w hen  the  soil  is  well  warmed  by  the  sun.     If  sown,  however, 
"  tvhen  the  earth  is  cold,  they  will  rot  in  the  ground. 

GIG?3.  Little  tumors,  or  bladders,  filled  with  matter,  found  in  the 
months  of  horses.  The  cure  is  efft  cted  by  slitting  them  open,  an^ 
then  w  ashing  them  with  salt  and  vinegar. 


^     far:mer'S  assistats^t.  95 

GLANDERS.  Commonly  called  the  horse  distemper.  It  is  al- 
vr&js  accompanied  with  a  discharge  of  matter  from  the  nostrils,  and  a 
swelling  of  the  glands  under  the  throat  and  tongue.  When  the  bonea 
io  that  part  become  carious,  it  is  generally  incura!jle;  and  this  may 
be  known  by  the  bad  smell  which  is  produced  in  such  cases.  The 
treatment  recommended  in  Gibson's  tarriery,  lor  this  disease,  white  in 
its  first  and  second  stages,  is  to  make  use  ol"  purges,  dia[iIioretics.  and 
Towelling  in  the  hinder  parts.  1  imagine,  that  «)weiling  in  the  breast 
will  answer  the  sarne  purpose. 

See  article  Rowelling. 

To  clear  the  nosirils,  Gibson  recommends  passing  the  Fumes  of 
burnt  brimstone,  or  burnt  leather  into  the  nose  ol  the  horse,  and  after 
the  matter  has  been  discharged,  to  syringe  his  nostrils  with  brandy,  or 
ted  wine.  Afterwards,  he  says,  a  small  quantity  of  Unquaitwn 
Ezypcianinn,  dissolved  in  oil  of  turpentine,  may  be  injected Ihrough  a 
large  pipe  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  theulcerated  par;?. 

GOATS.  These  animals  are  hardy  and  rather  more  prolific  than 
sheep.  The  kids  are  Bpt  to  poison  themselves  by  eating  laurel,  if 
tlfey  can  find  it.  These  are  excellent  lor  the  table,  and  even  the  old 
ones  are  tolerable  goml  eating,  and  are  generally  well  filled  with  taN 
low.  The  milk  of  the  goat,  of  which  they  give  a  greater  quantity 
tlian  any  other  animal  of  their  size,  is  good  to  mis  with  that  of  covva 
in  making  cheese^  It  is  also  much  esteemed  in  consumptive  cases. 
Their  skins  are  much  more  valuable  than  those  of  sheep,  being  nearly 
as  strong  as  that  of  the  deer. 

Goats  are  very  useful  on  new  farms,  as  they  serve  eGfectually  to 
destroy  all  sprouts  and  bushes.  They  are  peculiarly  excellent  in  de- 
stroying shrub-oak  bushes,  as  these  are  naturalh'  hajd  to  subdue. 

GOOSE.     >yc  article  Fovltry. 

GOOSEBERRY  :  (R^bes  GrossuIaria.J  Tbis  species  of  the  cur- 
rant requires  about  the  same  soil  and  culture,  that  is  required  for  the 
common  red  or  white  currant. 

See  article  Currant. 

A  very  good  wine  may  also  be  made  from  the  gooseberry,  and  va- 
rieties may  he  produced  of  this  |)lant,  by  sowing  the  seeds  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  mentioned  of  currants.  Mr.  Forsyth  observes,  that  y 
mixing  up  a  rich  soil  to  plant  those  in  that  have  been  rais-  d  from  seed, 
and  by  watering  and  thinning  the  fruit,  they  have  grown  much  larger 
than  any  ever  before  seen  in  England.  He  further  observes,  that 
great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  early  and  late  sorts;  that  where 
&ey  r^u  up  to  long  naked  stems  they  should  be  cut  dornt.  which  will 


76  FARMER^S  ASSISTANT. 

make  them  throw  out  good  bearing  shoots,  and  in  that  case  his  com- 
position must  be  applied.  There  are  other  observations  made  by 
Mr.  Forsyth,  on  the  culture  of  this  plant,  which  are  here  omitted,  as 
not  being  considered  of  any  material  consequence. 

GRAFTING.  Mr.  Forsyth  describes  several  methods  of  graft- 
ing:— 

As,  first — Grafting  in  the  rind,  which  is  proper  only  for  large  trees. 

Secondly — CUft-sprafting,  which  answers  well  on  small  stocks  or 
limbs,  and  has  been  mostly  practised  in  this  country  : 

Thirdly — Whip-grajling,  or  tonguc-gr a/ling,  which  is  also  proper 
for  small  stocks  only,  and  as  Forsyth  says,  is  the  most  effectual  of  any 
and  the  most  in  use  in  Great-Britain: 

Fourthly — Inarching,  or  ^rc^ting  by  approach.  This  is  done  where 
the  stock  to  be  grafted  on,  and  the  tree  from  which  the  graft  is  taken, 
stand  so  near  together,  that  they  may  be  joined. 

Forsyth  says,  that  grafts,  or  scions,  should  be  cut  off  from  the  treea 
before  the  buds  begin  to  swell ;  that  they  should  be  laid  with  the  cut 
end  downwards,  and  buried  half  their  length  in  earth,  having  the  tops 
covered  with  litter  to  prevent  their  drying  too  much ;  that  they  should 
be  all  of  the  growth  of  the  former  year;  that  tliey  should  always  be 
taken  from  healthy,  fruitful  trees,  for  if  taken  from  sickly  ones,  the 
graft?  often  partake  of  the  distemper;  that  if  taken  from  young  luxu- 
riant trees,  they  may  [)roduce  luxuriant  shoots,  but  will  not  be  so  pro- 
ductive as  those  taken  from  fruitful  trees  ;  that  those  which  are  taken 
from  lateral,  or  horizontal  branches  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  of  the 
strong  perpendicular  shoots ;  and  that  none  should  be  taken  from  the 
aprouts  of  trees. 

Mr.  Forsyth  prefers  the  ivhip-grafting  for  common  cases,  but  for 
these,  Mr.  Deane  prefers  the  clc/t-grafting.  This,  he  says,  is  most 
commonly  practised  in  this  country  and  is  attended  Avifh  success.  It 
is  done  on  the  stocks  in  the  nursery,  or  on  the  small  limbs  of  trees. 
The  proper  season  for  it  is  just  before  the  leaves  begin  to  open.  The 
bead  ol  the  stock  must  be  cut  off  sloping,  and  a  slit  made  sloping  the 
opposite  way,  deep  enough  to  receive  the  scion,  which  should  be  cut 
like  a  wedge,  with  the  outside  thicker  than  the  inner.  The  Had  of 
the  scion  must  exactly  join  the  rind  of  the  stock.  The  slit  should  be 
opened  by  a  wedge  of  hard  wood  ;  the  scion  should  then  be  gently 
put  in  its  place  and  the  stock  closed.  After  this,  the  whole  must  be 
daubed  round  closely  with  a  mortar  made  of  a  mixture  of  loam  and 
fresh  horse-dung,  so  as  comjdotcly  to  exclude  the  access  of  air;  and 
this  mortar  must  be  surrounded  with  a  winding  of  (nv.-.  or  old  cloth?, 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  77 

to  prevent  the  rains  washing  it  away.  The  scion  should  he  covered 
nearly  to  the  top  with  this  mortar;  aud  it  should  also  extend  two  or 
three  inches  downwards  round  the  stock. 

In  place  ot  this  mortar,!*  orsyth  recommends  a  plaister  made  of  pitch, 
turpentine  and  Dees-wax,  which  is  in  like  manner  to  be  daubed  closely 
round,  so  as  to  exclude  the  external  air.  The  mortar,  however,  if 
well  made,  and  well  applied,  will  answer  very  well.  It  should  be 
composed  of  fine  loam,  not  clay,  because  clay  will  contract  and  crack 
open  when  dried. 

Whip-grafting  is  performed  by  cutting  off  the  head  of  the  stock 
sloping,  then  making  a  notch  in  the  slope  from  the  upper  part  down- 
ward, a  little  more  than  half  an  inch  deep,  to  receive  the  scion,  which 
must  be  cut  with  a  slope  upward,  and  a  slit  made  in  this  like  a  tongue, 
■which  is  to  be  inserted  into  a  slit  made  in  the  slope  of  the  stock,  and 
the  scion  is  then  set  in,  so  that  the  rinds  of  each  join  exactly  together. 
The  scion  is  then  fastened  by  a  ligature  to  keep  it  steady,  and  then 
surrounded  with  mortar,  or  the  plaister,  as  before. 

Grafting  in  the  rind  is  performed  by  cutting  oG"  the  stock  square; 
slitting  down  the  bark  a  small  distance,  and  raising  it  up,  so  that  the 
end  of  the  scion  may  be  inserted  between  it  and  the  wood  :  The  scion 
is  made  with  a  shoulder,  cut  in  about  half  its  thickness,  and  the  other 
half  is  sloped  off  gradually,  so  as  (o  give  it  the  form  of  a  wedge;  the 
cut  side  being  flat  and  the  bark  side  untouched.  This  wedge  or 
tongue,  is  inserted  under  the  bark,  with  the  shoulder  fitted  to  the  stock; 
the  raised  bark  is  then  pressed  close  and  bound  round,  and  the  plaister 
is  applied,  as  before  mentioned.  It  is  usual,  in  this  case,  to  insert 
three  or  four  scions  in  one  stock. 

See  further,  articles  Inarching  and  Innoculating,  for  the  methodi 
of  performing'these  operations. 

GRAIN-HOUSE,  or  GRANARY.  If  the  farmer  thinks  proper 
to  build  a  grain-house,  which  is  very  useful  for  Indian  corn  in  particu- 
lar, the  best  method  of  keeping  rats  and  mice  out  of  it,  is  to  set  it  on 
blocks,  covered  with  flat  stones,  large  enough  to  project  four  or  five 
inches  beyond  the  blocks,  on  every  side.  To  prevent  the  blocks  from 
rotting  at  the  bottoms,  they  ought  to  be  set  on  stones,  raised  a  little 
above  ground.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  grain-house  and  carriage, 
or  waggon-house  built  together  ;  the  upper  part  for  Indian-corn,  and 
ether  grain,  and  the  lower  part  lor  waggons,  carts,  ploughs,  &:c.  d;c. 

Some  farmers  make  provision  for  a  place  to  keep  their  Indian-corn 
In  their  barns,  which  is  a  pretty  good  plan.  The  place  for  this  is  a 
AooT,  raised  on  a  p«>cond  set  of  beams,  \\hich  rest  on  posts  set  in  tlie 


78  FARMER'S  ASSFTANT. 

beams,  next  below  the  plates  of  the  barn.  In  the  middle  of  this  floor 
is  a  hole,  through  which  a  tackle  is  suspended,  and  the  corn  is  raised 
in  baskets  and  spread  a  proper  thickness  over  the  floor.  Such  a  floor 
in  an  ordinary  sized  barn  wouKl  prol)ahly  contain  three  hundred  bush- 
els. At  the  proper  season,  the  corn  is  thrown  down  on  the  barn  floor, 
and  there  threshed  out  with  flails,  or  with  a  threshing-machine,  which 
is  better,  and  is  then  cleaned  and  put  into  bins  made  for  the  purpose 
on  one  side  of  the  barn  floor.  (Scf  article  Barn.)  The  bins  must  be 
made  tight,  of  hard  plank,  sufliciently  thiek  to  prevent  the  rats  from 
gnawing  through  them ;  and  the  lid  to  each  may  be  fastened  down  by 
a  clasp  secured  by  a  padlock.  This  plan  is  equally  good  for  keeping 
wheat  and  other  grain.  If  the  grain  which  is  put  into  these  should 
heat,  it  can  be  shovelled  out  upon  the  floor,  and  there  stirred  about 
until  it  is  sufficiently  dry  to  be  returned  into  the  bins.  The  method 
of  ascertaioiug  whether  grain  has  become  heated  in  the  bin,  is  to  run 
a  stick  to  the  bottom ;  let  it  remain  there  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ; 
and  if  in  that  time  there  be  any  heat  in  the  grain  it  will  be  communi- 
cated to  the  stick. 

If  grain  be  kept  long  in  sack*,  its  heating  may  be  prevented  by 
frequently  turning  them  first  on  one  end,  and  then  on  the  other. 

GRASSES.  Some  of  these  are  best  calculated  for  moist  or  wet 
soils,  some  for  dry,  and  some  for  the  different  climates  in  which  grass 
is  cultivated.  Some  again  are  best  for  pastures  and  some  for  mowing. 
The  different  kinds  which  are  most  valuable  are  here  noted,  together 
with  their  proper  soils,  &:c. 

BIeadow  Catstail,  Timothy  Gras.",  or  HiTd<:^ras<;,  fPhlcum 
Pratensis,J  is  the  grass  most  used  for  hay  in  the  northern  states,  it  is 
also  erroneously  calledybx-rai7,  but  this  is  another  grass.  The  cats- 
tail  has  a  long  head,  somewhat  resembling  the  tail  of  a  cat  with  very 
fine  seeds;  the  fox-tail  has  a  short  bushy  head  more  like  the  tail  of  a 
fox  with  coarser  seeds.  In  other  respects  they  have  considerable  re- 
semblance. 

Catstail  grows  best  in  a  rich  moist  soil ;  but  it  will  grow  well  for 
a  few  years  in  a  rich  wet,  or  in  a  rich  arable  soil.  In  the  rich  wet 
soil  it  gradually  lessens  in  product,  while  at  the  same  time  it  gives  way 
to  wild  grasses.  In  the  rich  arable  soil  it  gradually  fails  by  reason 
of  the  ground  becoming  bound  and  the  sward  thickened  with  other 
grasses.  Probably  if  it  were  well  torn  with  the  harrow  every  spring, 
and  not  too  closely  pastured  in  the  fall,  aud  none  iu  the  spring,  it 
would  grow  well  for  many  years  in  such  soil.  By  close  pasturing  in 
the  fall,  it  is  apt  to  be  torn  out  by  the  roots,  and  by  cropping  it  again 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  79 

in  the  spring,  it  suflfers  greatly.  It  will  yield  one  half  more  when  not 
pastured  at  all,  than  when  pastured  closely  in  the  tall  and  again  in  the 
spring.  In  the  richest  soils,  and  when  not  pastured,  upwards  of  four 
tons  may  be  had  from  the  acre  in  a  season  at  two  mowings.  Cattle 
are  not  quite  so  fond  of  it  in  pastures  as  they  are  of  clover,  but  when 
made  into  hay  they  eat  it  very  readily.  It  is  not  so  much  a  fertilizer 
of  land  as  clover;  on  the  contrary,  it  binds,  and  somewhat  exhausts 
the  soil.  It  is  perennial,  and  will  last  beyond  the  memory  of  man,  if 
not  destroyed  by  close  pasturing.  The  proper  time  for  mowing  it,  is, 
when  it  is  in  blossom,  or  a  littie  later. 

From  the  trials  made  in  Great-Britain  of  this  native  American 
grass,  it  is  however  asserted  by  3Ir.  Curtis,  to  possess  no  excellence 
which  is  not  possessed  in  an  equal  degree  by  the 

Meadow  Foxtail;  (AlopecurusPratensis.)  This  grass  is  much 
cultivated  in  Great-Britain.  It  is  an  early  grass  and  vegetates  with 
such  luxnriancy,  that  according  to  Mr.  Curtis  it  may  be  mowed  three 
times  a  year.  The  British  graziers  consider  it  as  one  of  their  best 
grasses,  particularly  for  larger  cattle.  'i"he  soil  best  suited  for  it,  is 
moist  meadow-land,  or  that  which  is  occasionally  overflowed,  though 
it  will  grow  well  on  almost  any  soil  except  those  which  are  very  wet, 
or  very  dry.  Linnaeus  states  it  to  be  a  proper  grass  for  grounds  which 
have  been  drained. 

It  is  |)erennial,  and  yields  abundance  of  seed,  which  is  easily  gather- 
ed. The  seed  is,  however,  sometimes  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  an 
insect. 

Meadow  Fescue  ;  (Yestnca  Pratensis.)  Is  an  early,  hardy,  peren- 
nial grass,  and  grows  well  on  almost  every  soil ;  good  for  hay  or  pas- 
ture ;  produces  abundance  of  seed,  which  is  easily  gathered.  Mr- 
Curtis  says,  it  has  a  great  resemblance  to  ray-grass,  but  is  superior  to 
it  for  forming  meadows,  as  it  grows  longer  and  has  more  foliage.  It 
blossoms  about  the  middle  of  June. 

Darnel,  or  Kay-Grass  ;  (Lolium  Perrenc.J  Is  good  for  an  early 
supply  of  pasture,  as  it  starts  very  early.  It  grows  to  the  height  of 
about  two  feet  and  blossoms  the  latter  end  of  May.  Hor?es  are  ex- 
tremely fond  of  it  when  made  early  into  hay  ;  and  for  race  horses, 
particularly,  has  been  found  preferable  to  any  other  hay.  It  is,  how- 
ever, apt  to  run  too  much  to  stalks  in  most  soils,  and  then  cattle  dis- 
like it  in  pastures,  A  natural  sort  of  ray-grass  is  mentioned,  as  hav- 
ing been  lately  cultivated  in  Great-Britain,  which  b  much  superior  to 
the  sort  usually  cultivated  there. 


80  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Crested  Dog's-Tail;  fCi/nositrus  Gristatits,)  Is  good  for  upland 
pastures,  and  is  a  wholesome  food  for  sheep.  It  forms  a  thick  turf, 
and  blossoms  about  the  middle  of  June.  It  abounds  with  seed,  which 
is  easily  gathered ;  but  care  should  be  taken,  that  it  be  fully  ripe,  as 
otherwise  it  will  sometimes  fail  to  grow.  It  is  suitable  for  dry,  sandy 
soils  and  will  not  thrive  in  wet  meadows. 

Meadow-Grass;  ("Poa  Prataisis,)  Will  flourish  well  even  in  the 
driest  soils,  and  will  endure  drought  better,  perhaps,  than  almost  any 
other  grass.  It  makes  tine  hay  and  is  fit  for  early  cutting.  It  is  also 
good  for  early  pasture.  It  yields  plenty  of  seed,  but  this  is  difficult 
to  sow  on  account  of  their  filaments  causing  them  to  adhere  to  each 
other.  To  remedy  this,  it  is  recommended  to  put  them  in  newly 
slaked  lime,  to  sejTarate  them,  and  then  to  be  rubbed  in  dry  sand. 

Vernal  or  Spring  Grass;  (.inthox  Ant  urn  Odor  alum,)  Is  a  very 
early  grass  for  pasture  and  grows  in  almost  every  situation,  though  not 
equally  productive  in  each.  It  is  an  odoriferous  grass  and  is  recom- 
mended by  some  to  be  sowed  with  olher  grasses,  in  the  proportion  of 
about  one  eighth  for  meadows.     It  is  not  very  productive. 

Meadow  Soft  Grass;  (Holcus  Lanatus,)  Grows  well  on  any 
#oil,  not  too  dry  and  barren.  It  is  best  calculated  for  sheep  in  pastures. 
It  is  injurious  to  horses  when  made  into  hay,  by  |)roducing  a  profuse 
discharge  of  urine,  and  general  weakness,  which  may,  however,  be 
readily  removed  by  a  change  of  food.     It  is  not  a  very  early  grass. 

Sheep's  Fescue  :  (Festuca  Ovina,)  Grows  well  in  dry,  sandy 
soils,  is  very  good  for  sheep,  as  they  are  fond  of  it,  and  soon  fattened 
with  it.     It  is  perennial  and  flowers  in  June. 

Hard  Fescle  ;  C Festuca  Duricuscula,)  Flourishes  in  almost  every 
situation,  wet  or  dry,  and  blossoms  in  June.  It  grows  luxuriantly  at. 
first,  o  ten  to  the  height  of  four  feet,  but  it  soon  becomes  thin  and  dis 
appears  after  a  while.  It  is  best  for  mixing  with  some  other  grasses. 
Annual  Meadow  Grass;  (Poa  ^mma,^  Is  in  flower  throughout 
the  summer.  Cattle  of  every  kind  are  fond  of  it.  It  is  recommended 
for  milch  cows,  on  account  of  its  aSbrding  butter  of  a  very  superior 
quality. 

Rough-Stalked  Meadow-Grass;  (Poa  Triiialis,J  Resembles 
the  preceding  in  its  ap|)earance  and  in  flowering,  but  is  best  suited 
for  moist  or  wet  meadows.  It  is  very  productive  and  good  for  pasture 
or  hay.  It  is,  however,  lialde  to  be  injured,  says  Mr.  Curtis,  by  se- 
vere cold  or  excessive  drought. 

Fowl  Meadow-Grass;  (Poa  Avaria,  Spicalis  Subbifloris,J  Was 
first  discovered  ia  a  meadoW:  in  Dedhacn,  and  was  supposed  to  hare 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  81 

been  brought  there  by  water-fowls,  says  Mr.  Deane.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent grass  for  wet  meadows,  and  has  been  known  to  yield  three  tons 
to  an  acre  in  a  season.  It  remains  so  long  green,  that  it  may  be  mow- 
ed at  any  time  from  July  till  October.  It  makes  very  good  hay  for 
horses,  and  neat-cattle  particularly. 

Flat  Stalked  .Meadow-Grass;  (PoaCompressa,)  Flourishes  ia 
dry  soils,  and  flowers  from  June  to  August.  Dr.  Anderson  esteems 
this  as  the  most  vnlui'de  of  all  the  Pocs.  It  forms  a  fine  turf,  and 
imparts  a  delicate  flavor  to  the  flesh  of  sheep  and  deer,  which  animals 
are  very  fond  of  it. 

Silver  Hair-Grass;  (Aira  Cai-yophyllea.)  Is  most  suitable  for 
sandy  lands,  and  is  recommended  by  Mr.  Stillingfleet  for  sheep-walks, 
on  account  of  the  fineness  of  the  mutton  of  those  sheep  which  are  fed 
on  it.  It  flowers  in  July.  Mr.  Stillingfleet  applies  the  same  remark 
to  the  waved  mountain  hair-gnss,  ("azra  ji^'xyo>(i,J  which  grows  La 
heaths  and  barren  pastures,  and  is  in  flower  from  June  to  August. 

Creepixg  Bent-Grass;  fAzrostis  Stolonifera.)  Grows  in  moist 
lands,  and  is  a  good  food  lor  cattle.  It  grows  with  such  lu:s:uriance  as 
to  suppress  the  growth  of  moss  and  other  weeds. 

Tall  Oat-Grass;  CA  eiia  Elatior,)  Flewers  in  June  and  July. 
It  grows  very  large  and  coarse  and  makes  a  pretty  good  hay,  though 
horses  are  not  fond  of  it.  In  (ioint  of  excellence,  Mr.  Curtb  ranks  it 
nest  to  foxtail.  In  pastures  it  should  be  closely  led.  It  yields  plen- 
tifully of  seed.  No  doubt,  a  little  salt  applied  to  the  hay  made  of  this 
grass,  when  laid  down  in  the  mow,  would  be  a  great  improvement 
to  it. 

Mr.  Muhlenbergh,  of  Pennsylvania,  recommends  this  grass  very 
highly  as  one  of  the  best  he  had  cultivated.  It  would  probably  an- 
swer well  for  soiling,  as  it  starts  very  early  and  grows  very  late. 

Yellow  Oat-Grass;  ( Avena  Flavescens,)  Is  also  a  coarse  grass, 
which  thrives  in  meadows  and  pastures,  and  on  hills  of  calcarioussoil, 
where  it  flowers  in  June  and  July.  Though  tolerably  sweet,  it  is  less 
relished  by  cattle  than  ihe poas,  anil/«a<f  grasses ;  though  Mr.  Curtis 
says,  it  promises  to  make  good  sheep  pastures. 

Yamlow;  (Achillea  Millefolium.)  Is  highly  recommended  by  Dr. 
Anderson,  as  being  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants  growing  in  Great- 
Britain.  It  thrives  well  on  moist  loams  and  on  the  driest  soils,  and 
will  be  found  green  when  other  grasses  are  parched  with  drought. 
Every  kind  of  cattle  are  !ond  of  it.  The  seeds  ere  gathered  ia  Octo> 
her.     it  flowers  ia  June  and  July. 

11 


82  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT, 

RiB-Gii.\5.s  ;  (Piintaao  Lancolnta.)  Has  been  considerably  propa- 
gated in  Vorkshire,  (Great-Britain)  where  it  is  iield  in  estimation.  It 
is  best  adapted  to  rich  sands  and  loams,  and  on  poor  sands  it  an?\\cr3 
tolerably  well  for  sheep.  It  is  not  liked  by  horses,  and  is  bad  for  hiiy, 
on  Mccount  of  its  retaining  its  sap.  It  i=  said  by  Baron  Haller,  that 
the  richness  of  the  milk  in  the  celebrated  dairies  of  the  Alps  is  owing; 
to  the  cows  feeding  on  this  plant  and  the  lady's  mantle,  (alchemilla 
vulgaris.)    Its  seed  is  plentiful. 

Cock's- Foot;  (Dactijlis  Glomerala.J  Is  a  coarse  grass  and  grows 
■with  luxuriance.  It  suits  all  kinds  of  soils  but  those  which  are  very 
Avet  or  very  dry.  It  is  recom-nended  by  ."Mr.  Pacey,  who  says  it  af- 
fords an  abundant  crop ;  springs  early ;  yields  abundance  of  seed  f 
makes  excellent  hay  ;  and  is  very  permanerjt.  It  flowers  in  June. 
Where  it  grows  on  rank  soils,  however,  or  in  coarse  patches,  cattle 
ivill  not  eat  it. 

Bl!"e  Doc's-TAiii  Grass  :  CCynosurus  CoeniUus^)  Is  the  earliest 
of  all  the  British  grasses,  and  flowers  a  fortnight  sooner  than  any 
other.  It  is,  however,  not  very  productive,  but  may  be  useful  in 
shee|)  pastures,  in  high  rocky  situations  where  there  is  but  little 
soil. 

Of  Aquatic  Plants  nhich   are  useful  in  Cnllivalion,  are  the 
folloning  : 

Flote  Foxtail  ;  ( Alopecuriis  Geniculmus.)  Grows  in  meadows 
on  the  Severn,  where  other  good  grasses  are  expelled  by  reason  oi 
wetness  and  inundations.  It  is  a  good  grass  for  hay  and  flouers  in 
May  and  June.  It  is  recommended  for  newly  reclaimed  morasses 
an<l  lands  recovered  from  the  sea. 

Flote  Fescie;  (Fcsttica  Fluitnns,)  Will  grow  in  still  wetter 
grounds  than  the  flote  foxtail,  or  rather  may  be  said  to  be  amphibious, 
growing  as  well  in  tl>e  water  as  otherwise.  It  flowers  k)  June,  and  i» 
a  constituent  part  of  the  celel)rated  Orcheston  meadow  in  Great-Bri- 
tain. Horses  and  cows  are  very  Ibnd  of  it.  It  springs  early,  and 
promises  to  be  useful  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  last  mentioned 
ffrass.  The  Chedder  and  Cotlenham  cheese  owe  their  excflUence 
principally  to  this  grass,  and  to  the 

Water  Hair-Grass;  ( Aira  Aqtiatica,)  Which  is  further  said  to 
contribute  much  to  the  fine  flavor  of  the  Cambridge  butter.  It  gene- 
rally grows  in  the  edges  of  standing  waters,  and  flowers  iu  June  and 
July. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTAN1\  83 

Reed  Me  vdotv-Grass;  fPoa  Jff4atica,J  Is  one  of  Ihe  larffest 
ind  most  useful  of  the  British  grasses,  and  forms  much  of  the  riches  of 
Cambridgeshire  and  other  counties  in  England,  where  draining:  niea- 
dous  by  wind  machinery  is  carried  on.  It  is  good  lor  [)asture  and 
hay,  particularly  for  milch  cows,  though  it  is  not  relished  so  well  by 
horses.  It  is  strong  and  well  suited  to  low  places  which  are  liahie  to 
be  inundated.  It  grows  to  the  heighth  of  sis  feel,  but  sliouUl  be  mow- 
ed vhen  about  four  feet  high.  It  may  be  mowed  several  times  in  a 
season.  It  grows  picntil'uily  in  the  marshes  of  Sandusky  B;iv.  River 
Raisin,  Detroit,  and  elsewhere,  round  the  westerly  [)art  of  Lake  Lrie, 
Avhereit  is  the  principal  reliance  for  pasture  and  hay.  The  French 
tarmers  there  cut  it,  and  bind  it  in  bundles,  when  dried,  which  seems 
to  be  similar  to  the  management  of  it  in  tlie  parts  where  it  is  culti- 
vated in  Great-Britain. 

hi  nddilion  to  the  Nalural  Grasses  here  emnneraled  as  ivorlhy  of 
culture,  are  several  Artificial  Grasses,  or  T'egetables  ahich  are 
cultivated  as  such,  among  ihe  most  valuable  of  ivhich  are  the 
folio ning  : 

Ltceuve:  CMciUca^o  Sativa.)  This  grass  was  introduced  from 
France  into  Great-Britain,  about  sixty  years  since,  and  is  very  highly 
esteemed  for  soiliyiir,  though  it  makes  good  hay,  if  cut  while  quite 
green.  3Ir.  Livingston  hns  made  considerable  trials  of  it  in  this  state, 
and  the  products  have,  in  some  instances,  been  greater  than  those 
mentioned  by  British  writers.  With  the  best  cultivation  and  plentiful 
manuring,  from  sis  to  nine  tons  of  hay,  i)er  acre,  may  be  had  in  a  sea- 
son of  this  grass.  Twenty  pounds  of  seed  are  requisite  for  an  acre,  if 
sown  io  the  broad  cast,  or  six  pounds  if  drilled.  If  cultivated  in  the 
latter  way  it  is  to  be  ploughed  and  hand-hoed  three  or  four  times  in  the 
season:  but  perhaps  the  broadcast  is  the  more  profitable  culture  here 
Avhere  labor  is  high.  3Ir.  Young  recommends  it  to  be  sown  with  oats; 
first  sowing  and  harrowing  in  that  grain,  and  then  sowing  or  drilling  in 
the  Lucerne,  and  covering  it  lightly  with  a  light  harrow.  Others,  how- 
ever, advise,  that  the  ground  Ije  previously  well  pre[>ared  by  deep, 
frequent  and  effectual  ploughiugs,  and  that  the  seed  be  sown  by  itself; 
and  as  it  is  essential  that  the  ground  be  well  seeded,  perhaps  this  is 
the  better  way.  Mr.  Livingston  sowed  it  in  the  fore  part  of  Se;item- 
ber,  after  a  crop  of  early  potatoes,  and  found  it  to  answer  very  well. 
If  the  ground  be  prepared  for  it  by  summer-fallowing  it  may  be  sowed 
-at  Ibis  time.     The  essential  points  in  preparing  the  ground  are.  first, 


84  FAR:\rER'S  ASSISTANT. 

to  manure  it  irell,  and  then  to  have  it  frequently  and  deeply  ploujh- 
cd,  .'ml  well  cleared  of  the  seeds  of  weeds.  A  dry  loam,  san<ly  or 
gravelly  loam,  rich  sand,  or  other  srood  dry  soil,  is  suitable  for  it.  It  is 
said  to  grow  well  in  the  coldest  climates ;  but  those  which  are  mild 
are  most  suitable  for  it.  It  is  a  very  early  grass,  endures  drought  well, 
and  grows  very  late.  Probably  our  dry  warm  summers  are  more  favor- 
able to  its  growth  than  the  cool  moist  ones  of  Great  Britain,  and  that 
for  this  reason  greater  crops  of  it  may  be  raised  here.  Where  ground 
has  been  well  prepared  for  a  crop  of  flax  this  grass  might  be  sowed  to 
advantage  immediately  after  that  crop. 

See  article  Flax. 

During  the  first  season  of  its  growth  the  product  will  not  be  so 
large  as  afterwards;  in  this  season  too,  when  cultivated  in  the  broad 
cast,  it  is  most  infested  with  weeds,  which  are  most  easily  destroyed 
by  frequent  mowinss  for  the  purpose  of  soiling.  The  mowings  may 
be  as  often  as  the  grass  will  fill  the  scythe.  During  this  season  too, 
it  will  be  much  hurt  by  being  pastured ;  but  after  this,  it  may  be  fed 
■without  injury. 

Sometimes  this  grass  becomes  diseased  and  turns  yellow;  in  such 
case,  let  it  be  mowed  immediately,  and  it  will  then  start  as  fresh  and 
green  as  ever. 

Mr.  De  La  Bigarre  says,  that  after  tlus  grass  has  stood  two  or  three 
seasous.  it  should  be  well  harrowed  early  in  the  spring;  and  if  the 
roots  are  considerably  torn  by  the  operation  they  will  not  be  injured. 
This  should  be  repeated  every  second  spring  afterward?,  and  at  these 
times  the  ground  should  previously  have  a  good  top  dressing,  which 
will  be  well  mixed  with  the  soil  in  the  operation  of  harrowing.  The 
dressing  should  not  be  of  barn  dung,  but  some  manure,  or  composf, 
free  of  the  seeds  of  weeds.  Bog  dirt,  Iwg  marie,  mud,  Arc.  are  good 
for  this  purpose.  Let  gypsum  also  be  applied  every  spring,  but  not 
before  the  harrowing,  as  this  manure  should  never  be  buried  in  the 
soil. 

!Mr.  Young,  of  Great-Britain,  makes  a  computation  of  his  expenset 
in  cultivating  an  acre  of  this  grass  in  the  drill  way ;  and  after  deduct- 
ins  the  expenses  and  rent  of  the  ground,  tythe,  and  rates,  he  makes 
the  clear  profit  «Z.  18^.  4</.  sterling.  Mr.  Livingston  has  also  made 
a  similar  computation  of  some  cultivated  by  him  in  the  broad  cast, 
the  result  of  which  was  not  very  far  different,  though  the  value  of  the 
cro,»  was  in  this  case  set  much  lower  than  that  put  upon  it  hy  the 
former  gentleman. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  S5 

This  grass  lasts  about  ten  years,  when  the  ground  should  be  plough- 
e<l  U[>,  and  it  will  then  be  found  very  rich,  as  the  crops  do  not  materi- 
ally exhaust  the  soil. 

It  is  believed,  that  for  soiling,  in  particular,  this  ground  will  be 
found  more  productive  and  profitable  than  any  other,  where  the  high- 
est cultivation  aad  a  suitable  soil  are  given  to  it,  and  where  the  cli- 
mate is  suitable  for  its  growth.  Mr.  Young  says,  that  for  fatting  bul- 
locks, and  for  pasturing  swine,  this  grass  may  be  very  advantageously 
used.  Where  it  is  made  into  hay,  let  it  be  cut  while  quite  green, 
and  made  without  much  shaking  about,  as  the  leaves  fall  off  consider- 
ably when  dry.  A  little  salt  added  to  it  when  laid  down  in  the  mow, 
^vould  no  doubt  be  a  great  improvement. 

Saintfoix  ;  (^.edy  Santm  Onyhrrjchis^)  Will  grow  very  well  on 
dry  stony  soils,  that  are  unfit  for  any  good  cultivation,  and  will  pro- 
duce on  the  worst  lauds  a  ton  of  hay.  beside  considerable  after-math, 
in  tiie  season.  On  good  dry  lands  the  product  will  be  much  larger. 
It  may  he  used  for  soiling  during  the  forepart  of  the  season  and  mow- 
ed for  hay  in  the  htter  part.  The  hay  will  fatten  horses  considera- 
bly, as  is  said,  without  the  aid  of  oats.  It  increases  the  quantity  of 
the  milk,  and  some  say  of  the  cream  also;  while  the  butter  is  im- 
proved in  ils  colour  and  flavour. 

Saintfoin  requires  a  soil  free  of  the  seeds  of  weeds,  as  for  Lucerne, 
and  the  ground  should  be  well  mellowed  by  deep  ploughing?.  The 
seed  may  be  sown  with  the  drill,  or  in  the  broad  cast ;  three  bushels 
being  allowed  to  the  acre  in  the  former  method,  and  at  least  four  in 
the  latter.  The  seeds  should  he  fresh  and  sown  early  in  the  spring. 
Those  which  have  a  bright  husk,  a  plump  kernel,  which  is  bluis'i,  or 
grey  without  and  greenish  within,  are  the  best.  It  is  believed  to  be 
the  better  method  to  sow  from  one  to  three  bushels  of  this  seed,  with 
about  five  pounds  of  common  red  clover  to  the  acre  ;  as  the  clover 
serves  to  keep  down  the  weeds  till  the  saintfoin  has  become  well  root- 
ed.    The  seeds  may  be  sown  with  oats  or  barley. 

During  the  first  season  of  its  growth  no  cattle  should  feed  on  it,  nor 
should  sheep  during  the  second  season.  At  the  end  of  six  or  seven 
years,  and  afterwards,  the  ground  should  have  such  top-dressings  and 
harrowings  as  is  directed  for  Lucerne,  and  let  gypsum  be  also  applied 
every  other  spring. 

If  the  first  season  for  mowing  proves  wet  let  the  crop  be  left  for  seed. 
It  is  at  no  time  to  be  cut  before  it  is  in  full  bloom. 

Burnet;  (Poterium  Sanpiisorha,)  Is  mostly  used  for  early  sheep 
feeding,  tboagh  it  may  be  advantageously  used  for  soiliDg  cattle,  as  i* 


86  FARMER'c^  AS^rSTANT. 

K  hardy — is  little  affected  by  droushi  or  Irosts — and  will  even  vege- 
tate in  moderate  winter  weather.  If  reserved  for  hay,  it  must  he  cut 
early,  or  it  will  become  too  coarse.  It  requires  a  dry  soil,  and  may  be 
sown  with  the  drill  or  broad  cast.  It  is  essential  to  have  good  seed, 
for  which  pur|to?e  a  proper  s;»ot  for  raising  it  should  be  selected. 
Wh*'n  a  crop  is  designed  for  seed,  let  the  ground  lie  fed  fill  somrtimo 
in  May,  otherwise  the  grass  will  be  too  rank  for  seed.  These  should 
be  gathered  while  moist  with  dew,  and  threshed  out  in  the  barn  a? 
soon  as  they  can  be  dried  there.  They  may  be  sown  any  time  be- 
fore August,  after  the  ground  has  been  well  prepared.  The  following 
season  the  crop  is  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  Ijj'  the  barrow,  and  after 
that,  it  will  grow  so  strongly  a?  to  keep  down  all  other  growth-. 

CicHORY  ;  (Cichorium  Intilnis.)  Commonly  called  wild  succorj', 
has  been  but  lately  cultivated:  but  on  poor  blowins  sauds.  and  weak 
dry  soils,  Mr.  Young  thiaks  it  superior  to  any  other  plant ;  anu,  that 
if  sown  with  burnet  and  cockVfoot,  it  will  form  a  layer  for  six  or  se\  en 
yeai^,  far  exceeding  those  made  of  trefoil,  ray-grass  and  white  clover. 
It  grows  more  luxuriantly  than  Iturnet,  Lucerne,  orsaiutfoin,  and  may 
l>e  often  cut  for  soiling  daring  the  summer;  twice  during  the  first  sea- 
-■on,  and  three  or  four  limes  aflerwirds,  or  every  second  month  till 
October.  It  may  be  made  into  hay,  which  is  coarse,  but  tolerably 
nourishing;  its  principal  use,  however,  is  for  soiling  and  for  sheep- 
feeding,  as  it  is  less  injured  by  close  feeding  than  most  other 
^egelables. 

Mr.  Yoang  advises  it  to  be  drilled  at  the  distance  of  nine  inches 
on  poor  lamds,  or  twelve  where  the  soil  is  richer,  after  the  soil  ha? 
l>een  first  duly  mellowed.  In  this  case  it  will  be  greatly  improved 
by  an  occasional  scarifying.  It  may  also  be  sown  with  oats  iu  the 
broad  ca£t,  but  for  soiling  it  is  best  sown  alone  in  the  fore  part  of  the 
treason  and  lightly  harrowed  in.  It  produces  plenty  of  seed  which  is 
easily  gathered. 

Spirry;  (Spurpda  jirrenns,j  Has  been  considerably  ci^ltivated 
in  Flanders,  on  account  of  its  growing  very  late  in  the  fall,  and  even 
during  winter,  and  alTording  good  food  for  sheep  and  cows.  Cattle 
are  very  fond  of  it.  It  flowers  from  July  to  September,  and  is  best 
suite<l  to  sandy  and  other  dry  soils. 

The  Bv6H  Vetch;  (Ticia  Scpunn,j  Is  said  to  shoot  earlier  in 
-pring  than  any  other  artificial  grass;  it  grows  late  in  autumn,  and 
in  Great-Britain,  retains  its  verdure  throusrii  the  .vinter.  Mr.  Swayne 
states  the  amount  of  its  produce,  |)er  acre,  to  have  lipf-ii  ;il>out  twenty- 
four  and  an  half  tons  of  green  fodder,  equal  to  about  four  and  an  half 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  87 

tpnsofdry  hay.  The  culture  of  this  |>lant  was  long  since  recom- 
men.led  i>y  Anderson,  but  the  i)riuci|)al  ditficulty  seems  to  be  in  col- 
lectiug  the  seeds,  as  the  pods  burst  when  ripe,  and  thus  scatter  them 
before  they  can  be  conveniently  gathered.  Dr.  Withering  also  ob- 
serves, that  the  seeds  are  ofteu  destroyed  by  the  larvcu  oU  species  of 
catela/ius-. 

Tares  ;  C^'icia  Sativa.)  Of  these  there  are  two  varieties,  the 
winter  and  spring  tares.  3Ir.  Livingston  made  some  trials  of  the  lat- 
ter, which  were  not  very  successful. 

The  spring  tare  is  to  be  sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground 
can  be  well  prepared,  and  the  winter  tare  early  in  September,  each  at 
the  rate  of  about  eight  or  ten  pecks  to  the  acre,  broad  cast,  or  about 
hall  that  proporUon  for  the  drill.  Each  kind  is  good  for  feedin-  cat- 
tie  of  every  description,  particularly  the  winter  tare,  which,  in  Great- 
Britain,  comes  into  use  just  as  the  turnip  crop  is  exhausted.  This 
plant  is  not  proper  for  making  into  hay,  being  greatly  injured  by  wet 
weather  and  requiring  more  than  common  pains  to  dry  it.  The  seeds 
of  (he  different  kinds  must  be  carefully  kept  apart,  as  they  cannot  be 
distinguished  from  each  other. 

The  Broad  Leaved  Vetch,  or  Everlasting  Tare  ;  (Lathynis 
LatifohusJ  Was  long  since  recommended  by  Dr.  Anderson  as  pro- 
niismg  to  afford  large  crops  of  hay  and  grass.  It  is  eaten  eagerly  by 
cattle,  and  often  grows  to  the  heighth  of  twelve  feet. 

The  TiKTED  Vetch,  or  Tare;  fricia  EraccaJ  Attains  con- 
siderable heighth  and  produces  abundance  of  leaves.  This  sort  and 
the  7vood  vetch  (vicia  sylvatica,)  which  rises  from  two  to  four  feethio-h 
are  said  to  restore  ^veak  or  starved  cattle  sooner  than  any  other  vege- 
table known. 

The  Strangle  Vetch;  (Lathyroides,)  Has  been  strongly  re- 
commended by  Mr.  Amos,  as  affording  a  tender  and  agreeable  food 
tor  sheep. 

Of  Clovers,  the  most  valuable  kinds  which  are  known  and  culti- 
vated, are  the 

Trefoil,  or  Common  Red  Clover;  fTrifotmrnPratenseJ  Which 
•s  commonly  cultivated  in  this  state.  It  grows  well  on  all  dry  soiN 
About  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  seed  are  requisite  for  an  acre  It  is 
sown  in  this  country  with  barley,  oats,  or  spring  wheat,  when  that  ar- 
ticle is  raised;  or  it  may  be  sown  with  winter  wheat  in  the  fall  if  the 
laud  he  dry  and  warmly  exposed;  or  in  the  spring,  when  it  sljould 
be  lightly  brushed  or  harrowed  in. 


88  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

The  product  of  this  grass,  when  well  maoured,  may  be  four  toQ3  to 
an  acre,  at  two  mowiogs.  It  is  peculiarly  excellent  for  foraiing  a  lay 
Ibr  a  crop  of  wheat ;  which  may  be  sown  to  great  advantage  on  tlie 
clover  sward,  when  properly  turned  under.  All  kinds  of  cattle  feed 
and  thrive  well  on  it,  eithes  in  pastures,  when  soiled  on  it,  or  when 
■when  fed  on  the  hay.  For  fecdiug  swine  with  the  hay,  however,  it 
should  be  well  saved,  early  cut,  and  steam-boiled  before  it  is  given 
them,  and  in  this  way  it  will  keep  them  in  good  condition  through 
winter. 

See  article  Swine. 

Red  Perennial  Clover,  or  Cow-Grass;  fTn/oIium  Medium, j 
Is  cultivated  in  Great-Britain,  in  almost  every  kind  of  good  upland 
soil,  even  in  heavy  clay  lands.  It  is  to  be  sowed  in  the  spring  with 
oats,  barley,  Szc.  It  is  also  usual  to  sow  it  there,  as  well  as  the  corn- 
men  red  clover,  with  the  crop  of  flax.  It  rarely  succeeds  when  sown 
by  itself.  It  produces  abundance  of  seeds  which  are  easily  col- 
lected. 

Hop  Clover;  ('Trj/b/mrn  ProrumJfn*,^  Grows  naturally  in  Great- 
Britain,  in  dry  meadows  and  pastures.     It  is  recommended  by  Mr. 
Amos  for  laying  down  land  to  grass,  by  mixing  it  with  the  clover  last 
mentioned,  and  the 

White  Clover;  (Trifolium  Repens.)  This  grass  grows  sjk>u- 
taneously  on  dry  u;)land3  in  this  state,  after  they  have  !)een  manured 
with  gy;)sum,  or  with  lx)g  raarle,  Sec.  It  is  a  very  sweet  grass  for  pas- 
ture or  hay,  but  not  very  productive.  It  is  generally  short-lived,  but 
may  l>e  made  to  last  longer  by  passing  a  roller  over  it ;  for  where  the 
stalks  come  iu  close  contact  with  the  ground,  new  roots  will  start  and 
descend  into  it.  It  is  cultivated  in  Great-Britain  for  sheep  pastures 
and  for  other  uses.  It  is  most  useful  in  mixing  with  other  grasses  for 
the  purpose  of  thickening  the  growth  at  the  bottom,  and  thus  increas- 
ing (he  product. 

After  having  said  thus  much  of  each  particular  kind  of  grass,  some- 
thing remains  to  be  said  ol  them  in  general. 

It  may  firstly  be  observed,  that  in  laying  down  lands  to  grass  of 
every  kind,  the  work  should  be  done  effectually.  The  ground  should 
be  made  mellow  and  tine;  the  seed  should  be  clean  and  good,  and 
sowed  evenly  and  plentifully,  and  lightly  covered,  and  the  ground 
made  perfectly  smooth,  particularly  where  it  is  intended  for  mowing 
or  soiling. 

The  graziers  of  Great-Britain  in  laying  down  their  grass  lands, 
make  use  of  much  more  seed  than  is  usual  in  this  countrv.    Whethei 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  |9 

they  use  more  than  is  profitable,  experiments  alone  are  competent  to 
determine.  Let  one  rod  square  of  grouod.  properly  prepared,  be  laid 
down  with  a  given  quantity  of  seed  ;  another  square  rod  with  a  greater 
quantity,  and  another  with  a  still  greater;  then  carefully  gather  and 
weigh  the  product  of  each  square  rod  separately;  and  if  that  which 
has  most  seed  has  an  increase  of  product  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  ex- 
tra seed,  and  about  thirty  per  cent  more,  that  quantity  of  seed  may  be 
most  advisable  to  give  the  ground.  In  the  same  way  it  may  be  ascer- 
tained how  far  it  is  proG table  to  sow  the  ground  with  different  kinds 
of  grasses,  in  order  to  increase  the  product  of  the  whole.  This  is  a 
matter  that  is  much  attended  to  in  Great-Britain,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  following  directions  of  Mr.  Young  and  Mr.  Toilet,  for  laying  down 
particular  soils  to  grass.  Thus,  Mr.  Young  directs  for  an  acre  of  clay 
land,  the  following  grasses  and  proportions  of  each  : 

Of  cow-grass,  5  pounds;  trefoil,  (common  red  clover)  5  do. :  dog's" 
tail,  10  do.  and  of  fescue  and  foxtail,  I  bushel. 

For  an  acre  of  loam,  of  white  clover.  5  pounds;  dog's-tail,  10  do.; 
cay,  1  peck;   fescue  3  do.  ;  foxtail,  3  do.;  and  of  yarrow,  2  ditto. 

For  an  acre  of  sand,  of  white  clover,  7  pounds ;  trefoil,  i  do. ;  bar- 
net,  6  do. ;  ray,  1  peck,  and  yarrow,  1  bushel. 

Mr.  Toilet  directs,  that  for  an  acre  of  such  dry  light  soil  as  is 
adapted  to  the  culture  of  turnips,  the  following  proportions  of  seeds 
be  given  : 

Of  smooth  stalked  poa  or  meadow-grass,  6  quarts ;  ray-grass,  4  do.j 
dog's-tail,  6  do. ;  yellow  oat-grass.  4  do;  cock's-foot,  2  do.;  vernal- 
grass,  1  do. ;  cow-grass,  3  do. ;  v.hite  clover,  2  do. ;  rib-grass,  2  do. ; 
and  of  yarrow,  2  ditto. 

Agaio,  for  such  soil,  as  is  of  the  raoister  kind  of  upland,  he  allows, 
for  an  acre,  of  foxtail,  6  quarts;  rough  stalked  poa,  6  do. ;  meadow 
fescue,  6  do. ;  smooth  stalked  poa,  4  do. ;  ray-grass,  2  do. ;  vernal- 
grass,  1  do. ;  cow-grass,  3  do.;  white  clover,  2  do. ;  rib-grass,  2  do. 5 
and  of  yarrow,  2  ditto. 

For  firm  low  lands,  liable  to  be  overflowed,  he  allows  of  foxtail,  2 
pecks;  meadow  fescue,  2  do.;  rough  stalked  [»oa,  2  do.  ray-grass,  1 
do.;  vernal-errass,  1  quart;  white  clover,  2  do.;  cow-grass,  2  do. ;  and 
of  rib-grass,  2  ditto. 

Where  the  water  lies  longer,  he  directs  the  composition  to  be  as 
follow,  : 

Of  rough  stalked  poa,  2  pecks;  foxtail,  2  do. :  meadow  fescue,  2 
do.:  flote  foxtail,  3  quarts;  and  of  flote  fescne,  4  ditto:  And, for  sifii- 

32 


90  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

ations  still  more  wet,  ihe  following :  Of  rough  stalked  poa,  2  pecks ; 
foxtail,  2  do. ;  flote  foxtail,  1  do. ;  and  of  flote  fescue,  1  ditto. 

The  above  are  given  merely  as  spccimeos  of  the  quantities  of  seed? 
advised  to  be  apportioned  to  dififerent  soils,  and  of  the  several  kinds 
which  are  deemed  most  suitable  to  each,  in  Great-Britain.  Our  sum- 
mers being  warmer,  and  our  atmosphere  less  moist,  it  does  not  follow, 
that  the  same  sorts  of  grasses,  or  the  same  proportions  and  quantities 
of  the  seeds  of  each,  would  here  be  found  most  proper  in  similar  soils. 
These  are  matters  that  are  proper  subjects  of  enquiry  with  the  ingeni- 
ous and  experimental  farmer.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  believed, 
that  the  British  farmers  and  graziers  give  their  grounds  more  seed  than 
will  be  found  npcessary  in  this  country,  whatever  nia}'  be  the  case  io 
Great-Britain. 

GRAVEL.  The  principal  difference  between  gravel  and  sand  is, 
that  the  latter  is  chiefly  a  collection  of  very  minute  pebbles,  and  the 
former  is  merely  pebbles  of  a  larger  kind. 

Soils  may  be  more  or  less  gravelly,  and  where  they  are  little  else 
but  gravel,  thej"^  are  worth  but  very  little  for  tillage.  Where  they  are 
but  moderately  gravelly,  they  may  be  very  good  for  most  productions. 
What  are  called  gravelly  lands,  generally  speaking,  are  lands  of  a 
middling  quality ;  they  will,  however,  produce  good  crops  with  the  aid 
of  gypsum,  and  the  more  gravelly  the  soil,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
greater  will  be  the  effect  of  this  manure  upon  it.  Poor  dry  gravel? 
are  much  heljied  by  carting  clay  upon  them. 

GREEN-DRESSING.  Turning  under  a  growth  of  green  vege- 
tables for  the  purpose  of  manuring  the  soil.  Buckwheat  is  much  used 
for  this  purpose.  Sow  it  in  iMay,  altout  half  a  bushel  to  the  acre ;  and 
when  in  blossom,  run  a  roller  over  it,  exactly  in  the  way  that  it  is  to 
be  ploughed  under.  After  it  has  been  all  turned  under,  let  it  lie 
about  twenty  days,  or  a  month,  by  which  time  it  will  be  rotten,  and 
fit  to  be  i)loughed  again  to  receive  the  grain  iuteuded  to  be  sown.  To 
increase  the  growth  of  the  buckwheat,  and  of  course  the  quantity  of 
manure,  let  a  little  gyjjsam  be  strewed  over  the  ground,  if  it  be  suit- 
able to  that  manure.  Even  to  wet  buckwheat  intended  to  be  sown, 
and  then  strew  on  it  as  much  gypsum  as  will  adhere  to  the  grains,  will 
make  the  growth  of  it  considerably  larger. 

A  green  dressing  may  be  useful  to  a  crop  of  wheat  where  the  land 
is  summer-fallowed,  and  at  the  same  time  is  in  poor  heart.  Lands, 
however,  which  are  suitable  for  gypsum,  are  most  easily  recruited  by 
ihe  free  use  of  that  manure  and  red  clover ;  but  where  the  soil  is  not 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  91 

assisted  by  that  manure,  or  where  it  cannot  be  procured  on  reasonable 
terms,  green  dressings  may  be  found  a  useful  part  of  husbandry. 

GREEN  S.  Pot-herbs,  proper  for  boiling  when  young  and  tender, 
for  food  in  the  spring. 

Spinage,  sown  in  the  fall,  affords  a  plentiful  supply  of  these ;  so 
will  the  common  turnips,  French  turnips,  kale,  &c.  But  the  farmer 
ought  to  supply  himself,  in  addition  to  these,  with  at  least  one  good 
bed  of  asparagus.  {See  that  article.)  The  plant  which  is  commonly 
called  poke-weed,  is  a  very  fine  green  when  it  first  starts  up  in  the 
spring,  and  until  it  gets  to  be  about  a  foot  in  height.  It  might  be 
well  to  keep  a  small  patch  of  ground  sown  with  it,  as,  after  it  has  once 
got  into  the  ground,  it  will  start  up  every  spring  from  the  roots.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  tops  of  the  plant  which  is  commonly  called 
milk-weed,  which  are  also  very  fine. 

The  ccUtha  palustrisy  or  marsh-marygold,  growing  abundantly  in 
marshy  places,  makes  an  excellent  green  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 

GREEN  SCOURING.  A  disease  to  which  sheep  and  bullocks 
are  often  subject.  It  is  cured  by  verjuice  ;  a  wine  glass  full  for  a 
sheep,  a  pint  for  a  bullock.  Verjuice  is  the  juice  of  the  English  crab- 
apple.  Our  crab-apple  is  of  a  different  kind.  The  juice,  however,  of 
sour  unripe  apples  of  the  common  kinds  may  answer  in  place  of  ver- 
juice. 

GRIPES.  A  disorder  of  the  cholic  kind  with  which  horses  and 
sometimes  horned  cattle  are  troubled.  It  generally  proceeds  from 
wind  pent  up  in  the  stomach  or  bowels,  and  is  caused  by  a  high  state 
of  costiveness.  Horses  and  horned  cattle  have  been  known  to  have 
the  dung  within  them  so  hard  and  dry,  that  it  could  not  be  voided 
without  assistance,  and  this  assistance  is  by  clearing  it  out  by  ham'. 
After  it  has  in  this  way  been  principally  cleared  out,  clysters  are  to  be 
administered  which  will  open  the  passage  and  of  course  give  vent  to 
the  wind. 

See  further,  article  Neat  C.vtti.e  for  the  particular  treatment  of 
the  disorder  in  them. 

GROVES.  These  are  both  ornamental  and  useful.  To  plant 
heights  of  ground,  the  sides  and  tops  of  which  are  generally  not  very 
good  for  tillage  or  pasture,  adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  a  landscape  ; 
and  is  at  the  same  time  highly  useful,  as  it  regards  the  quanlilies  of 
firewood  which  may  be  produced  from  such  spots.  Planfing  rows  of 
trees  along  highways  is  also  pleasant  for  shade  to  the  traveller  and 
profitable  to  tha  owner  of  the  <=oil.     The  same  may  be  observed  in  rf* 


99  fak:mer's  assistant. 

gardto  lanes  and  to  passages  from  the  higliway  to  the  mansiou-house. 
Sugar-maple  trees,  planted  round  the  borders  of  meadows,  and  some 
straggling  ones  in  them,  are  very  pleasant  and  profitable,  as  they  do 
no  injury  to  the  growth  of  the  grass.  Wherever  trees  can  be  planted 
in  pastures  and  along  fences,  without  doing  injury  to  the  growths  of 
the  adjoining  fields  by  their  shade,  this  part  of  rural  economy  ought 
never  to  be  omitted. 

The  shade  of  some  kinds  of  trees  is  much  more  hurtful  to  the 
growth  of  plants  than  others.  "  I  planted  maize,"  says  Mr.  Living- 
ston, "  CD  the  west  side  of  a  young  wood,  consisting  of  oaks,  po[>!ars, 
a  few  chesnuts,  and  a  large  mulberry  somewhat  advanced  into  the 
field;  the  shade  made  by  the  rising  sun,  extended  nearly  across  the 
field,  and  was  not  entirely  off  until  about  ten  o'clock ;  1  remarked, 
that  as  far  as  the  shade  of  the  chesnut  reached,  the  corn  was  extremely 
injured ;  it  was  yellow  and  small ;  the  conical  shape  of  the  morning 
shade  from  particular  trees  might  be  traced  a  considerable  extent,  in 
the  sickly  appearance  of  the  plants;  the  black  oaks  were  likewise  in- 
jurious, but  less  so  than  the  chesnuts  ;  the  poplars  very  little  so.  Neap 
the  mulherry-tree,  the  corn  was  covered  by  its  shade  for  a  very  long 
time  every  morning,  and  though  not  so  large  as  that  which  had  more 
sun,  maintained  a  healthy  appearance." 

The  shade  of  the  black-oak  is  particularly  hurtful  to  the  growth  of 
wheat;  that  of  the  locust  is,  on  the  contrary,  beneficial  to  grass 
grounds;  and  that  of  the  sugar-maple  does  but  little  injury  to  tJh$ 
growth  of  grain  and  none  to  erass. 

GYPSUM.     5a article  Maklrbs. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  93 


H. 

HARROWS  AND  HARROWING.  In  regard  to  shape,  the  three- 
fijuare  harrow  is  as  good  as  any ;  but  let  it  be  long  and  narrow  fof 
stoney  or  stumjiy  grounds,  and  wider  where  the  ground  is  smooth- 
The  essentials  for  a  good  harrow,  are,  to  have  long  heavy  teeth,  made 
of  iron,  and  pointed  with  steel  at  the  ends.  Where  the  land  is  rough 
there  ought  to  be  fewer  teelh  than  where  it  is  smooth.  The  teeth  of 
the  harrow  for  rough  ground  ought  to  be  set  slanting  a  little  back- 
ward, so  that  it  will  not  get  fastened  on  the  stones,  roots,  or  stumps; 
and,  on  the  contrary,  where  it  is  used  for  smooth  ground  they  ought 
to  be  set  slanting  considerably  forward. 

In  stoney  rough  grounds,  harrowing  cannot  be  performed  to  so 
much  advantage,  but  on  smooth  grounds,  and  every  farmer  ought  to 
make  his  grounds  smooth,  two  or  three  good  harrowings  may  be  as 
good  as  a  ploughing.  Harrowing  ought  to  be  performed  on  wet 
ground,  in  a  dry  time,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  On  dry  lands  it 
is  best  to  harrow  in  (he  mornings  while  the  dew  is  on,  and  when  the 
ground  is  moderately  dry.  It  ought  to  be  harrowed  before  seeds  are 
sown ;  otherwise  they  will  be  buried  of  unequal  depths  and  will  come 
up  in  rows;  most  of  the  seeds  being  in  that  case  thrown  into  the  bot- 
toms of  the  furrows. 

On  furrows  of  green  sward  turned  under,  the  harrow  must  be  load- 
ed with  more  than  its  common  weight,  which  in  all  cases  ought  to  be 
prettj'  heavy,  and  run  lengthways  with  the  furrows.  Where  seed  is 
sown  on  ridges,  the  harrow  ought  also  to  be  run  lengthways.  Per- 
haps, in  such  cases,  it  is  best  to  let  the  land  remain  in  the  furrows,  as 
it  is  left  by  the  plough ;  the  seed,  in  such  cases,  being  usually  plouf^h- 
ed  in.' 

Harrowing  meadow  laads,  where  they  become  bound,  or  where  they 
become  cold  and  mossy,  is  of  essential  service  to  them,  and  will  make 
them  produce  much  more  largely  the  following  years.  The  best  time 
to  do  this  is  in  the  spring  while  the  ground  is  soft.  If  the  meadow  be 
too  wet,  however,  for  spring  harrowing,  it  ought  to  be  done  in  the 
drier  part  of  the  fall ;  and,  in  such  case,  if  a  dressing  of  horse,  or 
sheep-dung,  mixed  with  sand,  be  laid  ou  previous  to  the  harrowing,  it 
will  be  of  essential  service. 


94  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Harrowing  wheat  and  rye  in  the  spring  is  considered  by  European 
writers  to  be  very  beneficial ;  but  doubtless  this  ought  to  be  done  very 
carelully ;  and,  it  is  advised  by  some,  that  a  roller  be  afterwards  pass- 
ed over  the  ground  to  fix  the  plants  which  may  have  been  disturbed 
by  this  process. 

See  also,  article  Spiky  Roller. 

HARVESTING.  In  addition  to  the  wheat  and  rye-harvest,  ift 
this  country,  we  have  the  Indian  corn  harvest. 

A  general  rule,  as  it  regards  wheat  and  rye  is,  that  the  earlier  each 
are  harvested,  and  before  the  grain  has  become  hard,  the  whiter  the 
flour  will  be,  and  the  thinner  the  skin  of  the  grain  ;  but  the  whole 
weight  of  the  product  will  be  a  little  less  than  if  the  grain  be  harvest- 
ed later.  Probably  all  that  is  gained  by  late  harvesting  is  an  addition 
to  the  skin  of  the  grain. 

AVhen  a  severe  blight  or  rust  has  struck  wheat  or  rye,  it  must  be  cut 
immediately,  even  if  the  grain  be  in  the  milky  state,  and  it  must  lie  on 
the  ground,  but  not  so  close  as  to  injure  the  heads,  until  such  time  as 
the  stalks  have  become  dry  and  the  grain  somewhat  hardened.  Then 
it  ought  to  be  bound  up  and  put  in  shooks,  and  carted  in  as  soon  as  it 
is  sufficiently  dry.  It  ought  to  be  observed,  that  the  later  wheat  and 
rye  are  cut,  the  easier  it  will  thresh;  but  at  the  same  time  there  is 
greater  waste  by  the  shelling  of  the  grain  in  harvesting  and  carting 

it  in. 

As  soon  as  Indian  corn  is  ripe,  it  should  be  harvested ;  but  while 
the  stalks  have  any  greenness,  the  crop  cannot  be  said  to  be  fully  ripe. 
If  the  corn  is  merely  lopped  in  the  tield,  not  all  cut  up  by  the  roots 
wliile  <^reen,  it  is  advisable  to  gather  the  ears,  cart  them  home,  and 
husk  them  out  by  nighl;  by  which  means  lime  is  saved,  and  by  which 
also,  the  husks  may  be  saved,  \Nhich  are  very  valuable  for  fodder  for 
cows,  &c. 

If  Indian  corn  be  killed  by  a  frost,  it  ought  to  he  immediately  cut 
up  by  the  roots,  before  the  leaves  have  had  lime  to  w  ither,  and  set  up 
in  shooks,  having  the  tops  tied  together,  to  keep  out  the  rains.  In 
this  way  the  ears  will  ript  n  in  the  same  manner  as  when  left  to  ripen 
on  the  stalk.  This,  in  most  cases,  is  a  good  practice  where  no  iVost 
has  injured  the  crop ;  as  in  this  way  the  field  is  cleared  of  the  corn  in 
time  to  ploua;h  and  sow  with  wheat,  and  at  the  same  time  all  the 
leaves  and  stalks  are  saved  for  fodder. 

HAY-MAKING.  If  a  meadow  is  to  he  mowed  twice  in  a  season, 
the  first  crpp  ought  to  be  cut  earlier  than  where  mowed  but  once,  iB 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  9j 

order  that  the  roots  may  recover  immediately  and  be  ready  for  vege- 
tation afresh.  Where  the  grass  is  cut  later  the  vegetation  of  the 
roots  stops  for  some  time.  The  grass,  however,  which  is  thus  cut 
early  will  not  be  so  heavy  as  that  which  is  cut  later,  as  it  will  shrink 
after  cutting,  but  the  roots  will  not  he  so  much  exhausted,  and  will 
aBTord  a  larger  crop  the  next  time  of  cutting,  or  the  next  summer,  if  cut 
but  once  in  a  season. 

The  best  time  for  cutting  herds-grass,  where  but  one  crop  is  cut  in 
the  season,  is  when  the  seeds  of  the  grass  have  formed,  but  before  they 
have  become  fully  ripe ;  but  as  farmers  cannot  cut  all  their  bay  ia  a 
day  or  two,  it  is  necessary  they  should  begin  before  this  time,  that 
they  may  not  end  too  long  after  it.  The  same  time  is  also  proper  for 
cutting  clover;  or  rather  when  a  part  of  the  heads  begin  to  turn 
brown.  Fowl-meadow  or  bird-grass,  may  be  cut  much  later,  without 
being  hurt  by  long  standing.  I  have  seen  wire-grass  mowed  on  the 
clay  lands  of  Coxackie  in  the  month  of  October,  for  the  Grst  time  in 
the  season,  and  it  then  made  tolerable  good  hay.  Lucerne,  on  the 
contrary,  must  be  cut  while  entirelj'  green,  otherwise  it  will  make 
but  poor  hay  :  The  same  may  be  observed  of  all  wild  swamp  grasses, 
and  of  the  high  coarse  grasses  which  grow  every  where  on  the  vast 
prairies  that  extend  through  the  western  parts  of  the  territory  of  the 
United  States. 

For  hay-making,  it  is  essential  to  have  dry  weather;  and  the  pros- 
pect for  this  ought  always  to  be  an  object  of  attention  with  the  farmer. 
Frequently  the  change  and  full  of  the  moon  produces  an  alteration  of 
the  weather,  either  for  the  better  or  the  worse ;  but  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty in  this.  As  a  general  rule,  the  weather  between  the  change 
and  the  full  may  be  expected  to  be  the  best.  Sometimes  rainy  spells 
of  weather  last  for  weeks  during  hay-time,  and  durins  such  spells  it  is 
sometimes  as  well  for  the  farmer  to  let  his  grass  stand  untouched,  un- 
til the  indications  of  the  weather  become  more  favorable. 

See  article  Weather. 

Some  methods  are  recommended  for  making  hay  which  are  more 
tedious  and  more  expensive  than  the  common  method,  and  on  that 
account,  so  much  the  worse,  if  in  other  respects  ihey  are  better.  But 
where  labor  is  scarce,  time  is  every  thing,  in  "  making  hay  while  the 
sun  shines,"  and  that  method  in  which  it  can  be  made  with  most  ex- 
pedition, ought  to  be  preferred.  The  best  plan,  therefore,  is,  for  the 
farmer  to  be  at  his  mowing  betimes  in  the  morning;  cut  down  as 
much  as  possible  by  nine  or  ten  o'clock,  by  wliich  lime  the  dew  will 


96  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

he  off;  then  spread  (he  mowed  grass  evenly,  and  al>out  twelve  turn  it 
over  where  it  lies  thick  ;  in  the  artenioon  rake  it  into  ivinrows,  sh^ke 
it  iiM  lightly,  that  it  may  he  better  exposed  to  the  air;  towartls  ?uu> 
down  make  it  into  neat  small  cocks  and  let  it  remain  so  a  day  or  two: 
if  it  he  not  then  sufficiently  dry,  shake  it  out  again  on  a  small  space 
of  ground,  and  turn  it  over  till  it  is  dried;  then  cock  it  again,  if  ne* 
cessarj',  and  as  soon  afterwanla,  as  po55il)lr,  draw  it  in. 

But  in  order  to  save  much  trouble  in  drying  hay,  the  application  of 
from  four  to  eight  quarts  of  salt  to  the  ton  is  recommended:  it  is  found 
that  hay  thus  salted,  can  be  well  saved  in  a  much  greener  state,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  benefit  which  the  hay  derives  from  the  salt  is 
more  than  fourfold  its  value. 

1'he  method,  also,  of  having  a  hf»Ie  in  \he  middle  of  large  mows, 
may  be  found  Avell  worth  attention,  on  account  of  its  obviating  the 
necessity  of  so  much  labor  in  drying  hay,  that  is  to  be  stowed  away 
in  such  mows. 

Sec  article  Barn. 

General  Smith,  of  Suffolk,  makes  use  of  a  horsc-rakc,  for  raking  in 
liis  smooth  mowing  grounds,  which,  with  one  m;in,  a  horse,  and  a  boy 
to  ride  the  horse,  will  gather  hay  Ai  fast  as  six  men  in  the  ordinary 
way.  The  rake  is  al>out  ten  feet  long;  the  teeth  about  two  feet;  and 
at  ri^ht  angles  from  these  are  some  ui)right  slats  of  the  same  length, 
set  at  the  lower  end,  into  the  piece  into  which  the  teeth  are  morticed, 
and  into  another  light  slen»ler  piece  at  the  top.  The  teeth,  when  in 
operation,  run  along  the  ground  nearly  horizontiilly,  with  the  p.'intsa 
little  the  lowest,  so  as  to  run  under  the  hay,  and  as  they  take  it  up 
the  u])right  slats  retain  it  till  the  rake  is  lull,  wht-n  tht'  man  who  fol- 
lows it  behind,  turns  it  over,  and  thus  empties  it  in  a  row  ;  then  lifts 
it  over  the  hay,  thus  emptied,  and  sets  it  in  lnyond  it,  and  so  it  [tro- 
ceeds  on  till  it  is  again  filled,  and  the  same  process  is  again  repealed. 
^Vben  one  strip  across  the  piece  is  thus  raked  u\>,  the  horse  is  turned 
round,  and  another  strip  is  raked  in  the  same  manner,  emptying  the 
hay  at  the  ends  of  the  last  heaps  raked  up,  so  that  in  this  wav  win- 
rows  are  formed.  When  it  is  thus  raked  into  winrows,  if  is  dragged 
up  by  the  rake  into  bundles,  large  enough  for  making  into  cocks. 

Those  who  make  use  of  smooth  ploughing  lands  for  mow  ing  grounds, 
or  have  smooth  meadows,  will  do  well  to  attend  to  this  labor-saving 
implement. 

HEDGES.  Mr.  De  La  Blgarre,  recommends  that  (he  white  mul- 
berry be  used  for  making  hedges,  as  it  answers  well  for  this  purpose. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  97 

and  has  the  peculiar  advantage  of  affording  food  for  silk  worms,  which 
may  be  either  raised  on  the  hedges,  or  the  leaves  may  be  gathered 
to  feed  them.  (See  article  Silk  Worms.J  For  wet  lands,  howe- 
ver, willow  should  be  used  for  making  hedges. 

If  the  hedge  be  made  of  thorn,  let  it  be  our  own  thorn,  for 
the  English  is  apt  to  be  killed  by  the  winters  in  this  state.  The  dif- 
ficulty in  making  the  seeds  of  our  thorn  vegetate,  it  is  believed,  can 
be  easily  overcome  by  their  being  put  in  hot  water,  or  in  muriatic 
acid  gas,  mixed  with  water.     See  article  Germination  of  Plants. 

For  raising  thorn,  mulberry,  and  willow,  see  those  articles. 

Mr.  L'Hommedieu  says,  if  apple  seeds,  in  the  pomace,  be  strewed 
along  and  buried  in  the  top  of  the  bank  of  the  ditch  made  for  the 
hedge,  and  kept  from  (he  cattle,  until  they  have  attained  sufficient 
■strength,  they  will  answer  very  well  for  this  purpose :  and  as  the  cat- 
tle will  be  constantly  biting  off  the  young  shoots,  it  will  make  the 
hedge  grow  more  bushy,  thick  and  strong. 

In  dry  lands  hedges  may  do  very  well  without  ditches  ;  and  in  this 
way  they  are  now  made  in  the  middle  states,  of  English  thorn,  which 
can  endure  the  winters  there.  But  where  the  soil  is  wet,  or  spongy, 
the  thorn  should  be  set  in  the  bank  of  a  ditch,  and  no  doubt  it  would 
be  equally  necessary  for  the  mulberry.  Willow  in  such  grounds 
perhaps  would  not,  in  any  case,  need  a  ditch,  as  it  is  natural  to  wet 
grounds.  Mortimer  directs  that  the  hedge  consist  of  two  rows,  a  foot 
apart,  if  no  ditch  be  used. 

Where  ditches  are  used,  probably  the  better  way  in  general  is  to 
have  two  small  ones,  with  the  bank  thrown  up  between  them.  Mr. 
Miller  directs  that  the  sets  of  thorn,  when  planted  out,  be  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a  goose-quill ;  that  they  be  planted  when  newly  taken  up, 
with  their  tops  cut  off  about  six  inches  above  ground ;  and  that  they 
be  bedded  in  the  richest  mould  dug  out  of  the  ditch.  Where  two 
rows  are  set  together,  let  each  plant  be  put  at  the  distance  of  about  a 
foot ;  but  where  there  is  only  one,  they  should  stand  closer.  They 
should  be  hoed  and  kept  clean  of  weeds  during  summer,  says  this  au- 
thor, and  after  having  one  summers  growth,  they  should  be  cut  off 
early  nest  spring  at  the  distance  of  about  an  inch  from  the  ground, 
which  will  make  them  send  out  strong  shoots,  and  help  their  growth. 
This  is  agreeable  to  Forsyth's  plan  oUicading  domi. 

See  article  Fruit  Tree?. 

When  the  hedge  is  eight  or  nine  years  old,  it  should  be  plashed,  by 
cutting  them  half  through  and  weaving  them  together,  trimming  off 
superfiuou?  branches.     This  should  be  done  early  in  the  spring.    The 

13 


98  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

joung  hedge  is  to  be  protected  from  cattle,  by  another  fence,  until  it 
ha?  growu  suffi-  iently  strong  to  lorm  a  I'ence  of  itself.  Alier  twenty 
or  thirty  years  some  occasional  rei>air5  may  be  necessary,  by  selling 
young  |)lants  in  the  place  of  thitse  which  may  have  died  out. 

For  making  white  mulberry  hedges  Mr.  I)e  La  Bigarro  directs  that 
the  plants  when  set  shouhi  have  a  year's  growth,  and  be  cut  ofl'as  he- 
fore  directed  ;  that  their  roots  be  taken  ofl',  and  that  they  be  set  five 
inches  apart,  and  eighletn  inches  deep,  in  a  ditcli  dug  for  the  purpose, 
and  the  earth  thrown  in  iijion  them  again.  The  depth  lie  recom- 
mended for  setting  the  plants  is  evidently  too  great,  and  the  distances 
between  them  too  small,  unless  they  are  to  be  afterwards  thinned  as  they 
grow  larger.  He  also  directs  that  the  shoots  be  cut  olTthe  following 
spring  a  little  ai)0ve  ground,  in  order  that  they  acquire  more  strength, 
and  shoot  forth  more  branches;  and  then  they  will  !<)rm  a  j)retty 
gooil  hedge  the  third  or  fourth  year,  and  at  last  grow  so  thick  as  to  be 
impassable  by  any  cattle.  He  says  the  branches  must  be  twisted  antl 
•woven  together  much  earlier  than  those  of  thorn.  The  youns:  plants 
^\hea  set  out  are  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  protected  from  cattle, 
as  before  directed. 

Mulberry  hedges  may  also  be  made  from  slips  or  cutting?,  taken 
from  mulberry  trees,  and  in  that  case  they  should  perhaps  be  set  as 
deep  as  Mr.  TXe  La  Biija  re  recommends  for  sets. 

Hedges  may  be  made  of  other  trees  than  those  a])ove  named;  such 
as  white-oak,  elm,  hickory,  birch,  Ac.  In  all  cases  the  hedge  should 
be  made  of  such  growth  as  is  suitable  to  the  soil;  and  this  growth 
should  he  raised  in  a  soil  similar  to  that  in  which  it  is  to  be  pranted. 

Where  timber  is  scarce,  the  farmer  will  find  that  hedges  are  cheap- 
er than  rail  or  other  wooden  fences.  When  hedges  are  once  made 
they  are  very  durable,  need  but  little  repairs,  and  the  expense  of  mak- 
ing them  is  not  very  great.  Those  farmers,  therefore,  whose  farms 
are  crowing  scarce  of  rail  timlier,  ougiit  to  get  into  the  method  of 
making  hedges.  They  will  find  too,  that  a  well  ma<le  hedge  is  a 
miif-h  bettor  protection  for  their  crops,  than  such  \voo<Ien  fences  asarc 
us  .  dly  made.  They  are,  however,  not  so  good  to  keep  out  hogs; 
butihese  should  always  l)e  kept  in  inclosures  made  for  the  purpose. 

liE.MP.  This  plant  requires  a  mellow  dry  soil  and  the  richer  the. 
better.  It  turns  to  but  little  account  where  the  soil  is  not  sufficiently 
fertile.  It  will  grow  year  after  year  on  the  same  ground,  and  it  is  not 
so  exhausting  as  some  other  crops.  If  the  soil  be  sufficiently  rich,  it 
isth  s'.s  o' any  crop:  if  is  =u'j(ct  to  no  diseases  ;  severe  drcughtB 
do  bm  little  aflcctit;  and  cattle  will  not  touch  it.     From  two  to 


FARIMER'S  ASSISTANT.  99 

Three  bushels  of  seed  are  requisite  for  an  acre;  two,  where  the  soil  is 
middling,  and  three  where  it  is  very  rich. 

Vv'here  the  soil  is  not  naturally  ver}^  strong,  son>e  advise  having  two 
fields  lor  this  culture,  which  are  to  bear  crops  ali^mately  ;  while  the 
©ne  is  bearing  a  crop  the  other  is  preparins;  for  the  next  season,  by 
ploughings  and  manuring.  This  is  productive  o!  an  extra  expense 
for  the  rent  of  the  land,  <S:c.;  but  as  very  large  crops  is  the  essential 
point  iti  making  the  culture  very  profitable,  two  years  rent  ol  the 
land  may  be  found  but  a  small  drawback  in  the  amount  of  the  profits. 
If,  for  instance,  two  acres  can  be  made  to  produce  a  ton,  which  shall 
bring  three  hundred  dollars  in  the  market,  and  half  that  amount  he 
allowed  for  the  exi)ense  of  pre|)aring  the  ground,  and  raising  and  clean- 
ing the  crop,  the  surplus  profit  would  be  but  little  lessened  by  deduct- 
ing the  extra  year's  rent  of  two  acres. 

To  enrich  the  ground  during  the  alternate  years,  perhaps,  two  suc- 
cessive screen  dressings  of  buck-wheat,  ploughed  under,  might  be 
found  of  considerable  service. 

Sec  article  Green  Dressing. 

In  this  case,  the  first  growth  might  be  ploughed  nnder  in  (he  suin- 
Hicr  and  the  latter  in  the  fall.  If  barn-dung  is  to  be  added,  let  it  be 
plougb.ed  under  in  the  s|>riug  ;  but  if  compost,  not  until  the  next  spring, 
when  the  seed  is  about  to  he  sown  for  the  crop  of  hemp,  and  then  let 
it  l>e  well  mixed  with  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Gypsum  will  also  help 
the  crop,  if  the  soil  be  suitable  for  that  manure. 

Let  the  ground  be  well  mellowed  by  repeated  ploughings  in  the 
spring  for  the  reception  of  the  seed,  and  let  it  be  harrowed  before  the 
seed  is  sown,  and  then  harrow-  the  seed  in.  It  should  be  sown  pretty 
early  in  the  spring,  b«t  not  before  the  ground  has  sufficiently  dried  and 
can  be  put  in  ample  order.  The  seed  should  be  buried  of  as  even  a 
depth  as  possible,  in  onier  that  it  may  all  start  equally ;  otherwise  a 
part  of  the  plants  will  outgrow  and  keep  down  the  rest.  When  sown 
as  early  as  above  directed,  it  will  be  fit  for  i)ulling,  or  cutting,  about 
the  first  or  August,  the  time  for  which  being  known  by  the  falling  of 
the  flowers  and  withering  of  the  leaves. 

The  male  |)lants  of  hemp  bear  the  flowers  and  the  female  plants  the 
seed.  A  sufficiency  of  the  latter  are  to  be  left  for  seed,  and  these  will 
require  about  six  weeks  further  lime  to  ripen  ;  the  ripeness  being 
known  by  the  seed  turning  brown.  The  seeds  may  be  gin.lj,  beat 
ofif  the  stalks  when  dried;  or  they  may  be  taken  ofl" by  a  coarse  kind 
of  comb  made  for  the  pur|)03e.  The  female  hemp  which  has  stood  to 
ripen  the  seeds,  requires  a  longer  time  to  rot  than  the  male,  and  when 


100  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

dressed  is  harsher.  The  better  way  is  to  sow  some  hemp,  thinly,  by 
itself,  for  seed,  and  then  the  rest  of  the  crop  may  Ire  all  pulled  or  cut 
together. 

In  the  bog-meadows  of  Orange  couoty,  the  hemp  is  cut  close  to  the 
ground  with  an  instrument  made  for  the  purpose  ;  but  in  uplands 
which  have  any  little  stones  in  the  way,  it  is  best  to  [lull  it.  In  cut- 
ting, or  pulling,  each  one  takes  a  swarth  wide  enough  to  spread  the 
hemp  as  he  goes  along.  When  sufficient!}'  dried,  which  in  good  wea- 
ther will  require  about  a  week,  it  is  to  be  gathered  in  buudles  and 
bound  with  straw,  and  carefully  stacked  in  the  field  till  about  Christ- 
mas. It  is  then  to  be  carefully  spread  on  the  snow,  and  then  by  being 
covered  with  other  snows,  it  will  be  bleached  and  improved  in  its  co- 
lour. When  the  snows  dissolve  in  March,  it  will  generally  be  found 
sufficiently  rotted;  and  is  then  to  be  taken  up  and  set  iu  small  loose 
shooks  in  the  field.  When  sufficiently  dry  it  is  to  be  broken  with  a 
coarse  break,  then  carried  to  the  barn  to  be  again  broken  with  the 
common  flax  break,  and  then  dressed  in  the  manner  of  flax,  but  more 
gently,  as  it  will  waste  with  hard  beating. 

The  above  is  the  Orange  county  method  ;  but  the  hemp  may  also 
be  rotted  in  the  fall,  and  then  dressed  out  agreeably  to  the  above  di- 
rections. It  may  also  be  water-rotted,  which  is  to  be  done  shortly 
after  it  is  pulled,  and  about  five  days  are  generally  requisite  for  this 
purpose.  When  sufficiently  rotted  in  this  way,  a  small  handful  may 
be  |iulled  asunder  with  a  little  exertion  ;  and  then  it  must  be  taken 
out  very  carefully,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  coat,  and  dried.  The  water 
in  which  it  is  rotted  should  not  run  rapidly,  as  such  will  wash  away 
the  coat.  Let  the  sheaves  be  laid  lengthways  across  the  stream,  and 
sunk  completely  under.  Standing  water  is  good  for  rotting;  but  un- 
less the  hemp  be  once  turned  while  rotting,  that  which  lies  upper- 
most will  he  rotted  most,  owing  to  the  water  near  the  surface  being 
warmer  than  that  below. 

A  new  method  of  rotting  hemp  has  been  commuuicated  by  M. 
Bralle,  as  follows  : 

Put  fifty  pounds  of  hemp,  in  the  stalk,  into  a  vessel  filled  with  wa- 
ter, sufficient  to  cover  the  hemp,  and  previously  heated  as  high  as  200 
deerees  of  Fahrenheit,  and  into  which  has  been  mixed  at  least  one 
pound  of  good  soft  soap  ;  take  away  the  fire,  and  let  the  hemp  remain 
in  *hp  vessel  two  hours ;  then  take  it  out  and  cover  it  with  straw,  so 
th  •'  i?  may  cool  gradually  ;  the  next  day,  spread  it  evenlv  on  a  floor, 
and  run  a  heavy  roller  over  it  several  times,  which  serves  to  i>re:ik  it; 
spread  it  out  on  the  grass  for  five  or  six  days  to  bleach  :  then  take  it 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  101 

up,  dry  it,  and  clean  it.  By  this  management,  it  is  stated,  that  (me 
fourth  more  of  cleaned  hemp  may  be  obtainea  than  by  rotting  in  any 
other  way  ;  the  hemp  is  much  softer,  gtron?er,  of  better  quality  ;  and 
the  process  of  cleaning  is  much  less  expensive. 

To  make  this  method  of  cleaning  hemp  profitabie,  it  must  be  made 
a  sei)arate  business  and  carried  on  exlensivel} .  Wooden  vessels  may 
be  used  for  boilers,  and  the  boiling  [tenormed  by  steam,  in  the  man- 
ner described  under  article  Swine.  If  a  larger  quantity  of  hemp  be 
put  into  the  boiler,  the  soap  must  be  jjroportionate,  and  more  must  be 
added,  as  more  water  becomes  necessary 

The  seed  for  a  croi)  of  henjp  must  be  of  the  last  year's  growth ;  that 
which  is  older  will  not  readily  vegetate. 

Sec  article  Germination  of  Plants  for  the  method  of  making  old 
seeds  vegetate. 

Some  kinds  of  birds  are  fond  of  this  seed,  and  must,  therefore,  be 
kept  from  it  when  sown. 

If  hemp  be  sulTered  to  stand  after  the  right  time  for  pulling,  the 
stalks  of  the  male  wither  and  blacken,  and  then  the  coat  is  liutol  little 
value.  Where  hemp  grows  too  long  for  dressing,  it  may  be  cut  in 
two  without  any  injury. 

Hemp  may  be  made  a  substitute  for  flax  for  all  ordinary  purposes ; 
but  in  that  case,  it  must  be  softened  by  steeping  it  over  warm  water, 
or  lye;  and  after  it  ib  dried  again,  beating  it  till  it  is  perfectly  soft. 
The  steeping  is  performed  by  placing  it  on  sticks,  within  the  vessel, 
over  the  water.  The  steam-boiler,  just  mentioned,  might  be  applied 
to  this  purpose. 

No  very  particular  directions  are  here  intended  to  be  given  in  re- 
gard to  preparing  the  ground  for  hemp,  by  manuring,  A;c. ;  all  that 
will  be  insisted,  is,  that  plenty  of  manure  must  be  applied,  evenly  to 
the  soil,  of  such  kind  as  is  suitable  to  it,  and  that  the  ground  must  be 
effectually  ploughed. 

See  article  New  Husbandry  for  a  good  method  of  preparing  ground 
for  hemp. 

HERDH-GRASS,  see  article  Grasses. 

HESSIAN-FLY,  sec  article  Insects. 

HIDE-BOUND.  Horses  often  become  hide-bound  when  they  are 
poorly  kept,  and  badly  used.  In  this  case  the  animal  grou?.  poor, 
his  j-kin  sticks  to  his  ribs,  and  small  boils  break  out  on  his  back.  A 
method  of  treatment  opposite  to  that  which  the  horse  has  received 
will  generally  restore  him ;  that  is,  keep  and  feed  iiim  well,  work 


102  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

him  moderately,  and  loosen  his  skin  by  oiling  it,  and  using  the  curry- 
comb frequently,  but  not  too  harshly. 

JHILLb  AND  VALLEVS.  It  is  found  that  more  rain  falls  in  the 
valleys  than  on  the  hills.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  ki  the  valleys 
the  dro|>s  of  rain  having  farther  to  fall,  of  course  come  in  contact  with, 
and  alisorb  more  of,  that  vajtor  with  which  even  the  driest  atmos- 
phere al)ounds. 

If  a  goblet  filled  with  cold  water  he  set  in  a  warm  asmo[»here,  this 
vapor  will  presently  adhere  to  its  sides  in  tlio  form  of  water,  and  iu 
ihe  same  way  it  adiieres  to  the  drops  of  water  in  their  descent. 

In  this,  as  in  every  t^ing  else,  the  wisdom  ol'  the  Creator  is  display- 
ed. The  temperature  of  the  VHllcys  lieing  warmer  than  that  of  the 
hills,  more  moisture  is  required,  and  more  is  given  them.  Hence,  too, 
the  reason  why  many  plants  wiiich  require  much  heat,  grow  best  in 
valleys;  they  have  the  requisite  degree  of  heat,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  proportionate  degree  of  moisture.  But  as  all  grasses  which  are  indi- 
genous require  only  the  heat  of  the  hills,  they  grow  as  well  on  iheni 
as  in  the  vallej's :  a  good  general  rule,  therefore  is,  the  valleys  for 
lillagc,  and  tlic  hills  for  pastures.  Two  other  good  reasons  for  this 
are:  firstly,  when  hills  are  kept  in  tillage  they  are  generally  more  or 
less  washed  b}'  the  heavy  rains,  by  which  much  of  the  best  of  soil  is 
carried  off;  and  secondly,  they  are  always  more  or  less  inconveneut 
lor  ploughing,  and  generally  still  more  «litficult  for  carrying  any  h;  a- 
Vy  manures  upon  them.  The  above  rule,  however,  is  not  to  be  ap- 
plied to  hills  of  large  extent  and  moderate  descent ;  it  is,  iu  strictness, 
jncrely  applicable  to  broken  hills  and  declivities. 

HOE  AND  IIOEING.  Where  the  hoe  is  to  be  used  in  rough  or 
stony  ground,  it  must  be  made  stronger  and  narrower;  where  the 
ground  is  light  and  mellow,  it  ought  to  be  broader,  and  may  be  made 
lighter. 

Hoeing,  generally  speaking,  ought  to  be  merely  the  finishing  work 
of  the  plough  or  horse-hoe.  Where  it  is  used  merely  by  itself,  the 
work  is  more  laborious,  and  less  effectual,  as  the  hoe  ujerely  passes 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is,  however,  of  great  use  in  killing 
those  weeds  which  the  plough  or  hor^e-hoe  does  not  toucli,  and  in  du- 
ly distributing  the  fresh  earth  in  its  proper  |)lace  near  the  plants. 
Where  the  plough  is  not  used,  the  hoe  is  indispensable,  (.bVc  more 
on  this  subject  in  treating  of  crops  that  refpiire  hoeing.) 

HOGST  Y.  A  good  sty  is  of  the  utmost  iinj)ortance  in  fatting  hogs; 
nor  i  it  less  important  for  keeping  them  in  winter,  as  the  more  com- 
fortably they  are  kept  the  less  nourisiiment  they  require. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  103 

The  sty  sliouUI  be  proportioned  in  size  to  the  number  of  swine  it  i? 
1.0  coutaiu.  Uiie  of  sixteen  feet  by  twelve  is  probably  sufficient  for 
eight  fatting  swine,  it  should  be  divided  into  two  apartments;  that 
in  the  rear,  which  shouhl  be  about  six  feet  wide,  should  be  close  and 
warm  for  the  hogs  to  lie  in.  Here  they  should  have  a  constant  sup- 
ply of  drj'  Ktter  when  the  weather  is  cool,  for  it  is  an  essential  point 
to  keep  them  comfortable.  The  front  part  of  the  sty,  which  would 
then  be  about  ten  feet  wide,  should  have  the  floor  descending  to  one 
side  for  the  urine  to  run  off,  and  in  order  that  the  lower  side  may  be 
repository  of  their  excremeut;  and  on  this  side  should  be  an  opening 
wide  enough  to  scrape  it  out.  The  trough  should  be  on  the  upper 
side,  covered  vrith  one  or  more  lids;  and  upright  pieces  should  be  set 
before  it,  at  such  distances  apart  as  that  one  hog  only  could  put  his 
head  between  any  two  of  them,  in  order  that  while  feeding,  the  weak- 
er animals  should  be  protected  against  the  stronger.  The  whole- 
should  be  covered  with  a  roof;  for  it  is  essential  that  they  be  pro- 
tected from  storms  while  they  are  in  the  outer  or  feeding  apartment. 

According  to  the  foregoing,  if  sixteen  hogs  are  to  be  kept  or  fatted 
in  the  sty,  it  should  be  thirty-two  feet  long  and  twelve  wide,  and  ia 
thsjt  case  there  might  be  a  sleeping  apartment  at  each  end.  These 
apartments  should  again  be  subdivided,  in  order  that,  for  the  quiet  of 
the  animals,  |)articul;irly  in  fatting,  too  many  may  not  be  forced  to  lie 
together.  It  would  probably  be  best  also  to  divide  the  feeding  apart- 
ment ;  for  too  mauy  hog?  kept  together  are  not  a|tt  to  enjoy  that  peace 
and  quiet  v.liich  is  necessary  to  their  fatting  well.  Posts  should  also 
be  set  up  in  the  sty  for  the  hogs  to  rub  themselves. 

If  thirty-two  hogs  are  to  be  kept  or  fatttd,  then,  perliaps,  the  better 
way  is,  to  have  two  stys,  of  the  dimensions  last  described,  placed  to- 
gether, with  a  roof  over  the  whole,  and  a  passage  between  them  for 
purpose  of  carrjing  food  to  the  troughs. 

The  upper  part  of  the  sty,  or  some  part  of  it,  may  be  appropriated 
to  storing  the  different  articles  of  food  which  are  intended  for  feeding: 
or  fatting.  It  would  be  well  also  to  have  the  steam-boiler  under  the 
same  roof.     For  a  description  of  this,  sec  article  Swixe. 

If  a  part  of  the  roof  extended  considerably  beyond  the  sty,  it  would 
afTord  a  convenient  cover  for  forming  a  heap  of  compost  from  the  dung 
of  the  swine. 

HOGS.     See  article  Swine. 

HOi.LOW  DRAINS.  These  are  made  for  the  purpose  of  laying 
lands  dry  which  are  naturaily  too  ivet :  and  the  operation  at  the  same 


104  FARMER'S  ASSISTA^'T. 

time  tends  greatly  to  feraiize  the  soil,  and  render  it  well  fitted  lor 
many  kinds  of  culture  for  which  it  was  unfit  before. 

In  making  these  drains  rrsard  must  be  had  to  the  shape  of  the 
land;  and  for  this  jjurpose  the  leading  ones  must  be  carrieil  in  such 
direction  that  the  smaller  ones  will  naturally  run  into  them.  The 
descent  of  the  drains  ought  not  to  be  too  raj^id ;  and  therefore,  where 
the  ground  is  considerably  descending,  let  ihein  be  carried  in  an  ob- 
lique direction.  The  smaller  ones  are  to  be  jdaced  alx)ui  twenty  or 
twenty-four  feet  apart,  and  to  be  dug  about  four  feet  deep  upon  an 
average,  minding  to  have  the  «lesceiits  in  the  bottoms  uniform.  The 
width  of  them  need  not  exceed  fourteen  inches  at  the  top,  and  ten  at 
the  bottom.  After  they  are  thus  dug  they  are  to  be  filled  alwut  half 
full  with  stones  which  weigh  from  one  to  twelve  pounds,  and  these 
are  to  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  quite  small  ones,  that  will  serve  to 
fill  up  the  chinks,  so  that  when  the  earth  is  thrown  on,  it  cannot  fall 
down  among  the  stones  below.  Then  throw  on  the  earth  that  was 
before  thrown  out,  reserving  the  best  for  the  top.  The  main  leading 
drains  are  to  be  of  a  width  and  depth  proportioned  to  the  extent  of 
ground  from  which  they  carry  off  the  water. 

Sometimes  lands  may  require  hollow  draining  whicii  are  so  shaped 
as  to  have  no  natural  outlet  for  the  waters  to  pass  off.  In  such  case 
let  a  hole  be  dug  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  land,  if  it  be  upland,  suffi- 
ciently deep  to  find  a  loose  coarse  sand,  or  gravel,  if  such  can  be 
found  at  a  reasonable  depth.  \N  hen  the  hole  has  been  thus  sunk  to 
the  sand  or  gravel,  fill  it  up  with  stones  as  belore  mentioned,  and  run 
all  the  drains  into  it,  and  here  the  waters  will  sink  away  into  the  sand 
or  gravel. 

Where  stones  cannot  conveniently  be  had  to  fill  hollow  drains,  i 
is  said  by  some  English  writers  that  cutting  the  bottoms  of  the  small 
drains  very  narrow,  not  more  than  four  inches  wide,  and  cutting  the 
top  of  the  ground  into  proper  sized  chunks,  with  the  sward  on  it,  so 
that  where  these  chunks  are  wedged  into  the  Iwttom  of  the  ditch,  with 
the  2ra?s  downwards,  there  will  be  left  a  cavity  below  them  sufficient 
to  carry  off  the  water;  this  will  sufficiently  answer  the  purpose  of 
hollow  drains  for  forty  years.  Others  advise  that,  in  place  of  these 
chunks,  larce  rolls  of  twisted  straw  be  laid  in  the  bottom.  Other* 
again  advise  that  coarse  gravel  be  used  for  the  purpose. 

Large  tracts  of  lands  in  Great-Britain,  which,  before  they  were  hol- 
low drained,  were  too  wet  for  grain,  or  even  for  good  grass,  are  said 
by  Mr.  Young  and  other  British  agriculturalists,  to  have  become   so 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  105 

well  fitted  for  the  plough  and  for  grass  as  to  be  considered  lands  of 
the  first  rate.  It  would  he  desirable  that  some  of  our  more  o|)Ulent 
agriculturalists,  stimulated  by  successful  experiments  of  this  kind  be- 
yond the  Atlantic,  would  make  suitable  trials  of  this  method  of  im- 
proving our  cold  wet  lands^  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  in  this  coun- 
try, where  labor  it  higher,  this  improvement  would  be  warranted  by 
its  expense.     I  think  that  in  most  cases  it  would. 

HOP;  fHoiniilus.J  This  plant  requires  a  rich  mellow  soil,  well 
prepared  by  digging  or  deep  ploughing.  Bog-meadows  are  good  for 
raising  it. 

The  plants  are  raised  in  hills,  six  or  seven  feet  apart  where  the 
soil  is  not  very  rich,  and  at  a  greater  distance  where  it  is  richer*  In 
the  spring,  when  the  plants  begin  to  shoot,  take  cuttings  from  branches 
which  grow  from  the  main  root ;  if  of  the  last  year's  grow  th,  the  bet- 
ter, and  these  are  known  by  their  white  appearance.  Let  each  have 
three  or  four  buds ;  bury  them  lightly  in  the  hills,  with  the  buds  up- 
permost; allow  two  or  three  sets  to  a  pole,  and  three  poles  to  a  hill. 
For  making  the  hills,  first  dig  round  holes  about  three  feet  in  diame- 
ter, a  foot  in  depth,  and  deeper  if  the  soil  will  admit  it,  fill  up  these 
with  the  earth  thrown  out,  well  mixed  with  old  compost,  if  the  soil  be 
not  already  very  rich. 

The  first  year  the  hills  are  not  to  be  poled,  but  the  ground  in  this, 
as  in  all  succeeding  years,  is  to  be  kept  mellow  and  free  from  weeds 
by  ploughings  and  hoeings.  As  the  vines  rise  this  year,  let  them  be 
slightly  twisted  together  ou  each  hill,  and  let  the  hills  be  raised  a  little 
by  hoeing  in  some  earth  round  the  vines. 

Early  in  the  spring  the  second  year,  and  always  after  this,  the  hilU 
are  to  be  opened,  and  the  sprouts  or  suckers  cut  off  within  an  inch  of 
the  old  root ;  but  that  must  be  left  entire,  as  well  as  those  shoots  which 
incline  downwards,  to  form  new  roots.  Some  manures  should  occa- 
eionally  be  added,  of  composts  formed  of  sea  sand,  marie,  ashes,  &C- 
with  other  ingredients,  such  as  rotten  hog  dung,  <fcc. 

The  poles  should  never  be  too  long,  as  the  vines  never  begin  to 
bear  much  till  they  have  got  to  the  ends  of  the  poles.  Set  them  so 
as  to  form  a  triangle,  with  one  point  to  the  north,  and  let  them  meet 
together  at  the  top.  Poles  of  ten  feet  are  long  enough  for  the  first 
year;  after  that  they  are  to  be  fifteen,  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  long, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  ground,  but  never  so  lonj  as  that  the 
▼finea  cannot  go  somewhat  beyond  their  tops. 

11 


166  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Abont  the  first  of  September,  or  as  soon  as  their  colour  is  chaneed 
and  they  emit  a  fragrant  smell,  they  are  to  be  gathered.  If  gat  1 1  red 
later,  the  vines  will  bear  more  the  next  year,  but  the  present  crop 
will  not  be  quite  ?o  good. 

When  the  poles  are  drawn  to  be  picked,  cut  the  vines  a^^under 
three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground ;  for  cutting  lower  while  thej  are 
green  weakens  the  root  by  too  great  a  flov?  of  sap. 

The  best  way  to  dry  them  is  on  kilns,  and  this  is  necessary  where 
large  crops  are  raised ;  but  they  may  be  dried  in  the  sun,  or  on  floora 
under  cover,  though  these  will  not  be  so  well  flavored  as  when  WfU 
kiln-dried.  When  kiln-dried,  let  the  heat  be  steady  and  moderate, 
for  if  it  turns  the  hop  brown  it  will  be  injured.  Let  them  lie  al  out 
six  inches  thick,  and  be  frequently  turned  while  drying.  The  seed* 
will  crackle  a  little  when  bursting,  and  then  the  hops  are  suflBciently 
dried. 

Before  they  are  bagged  they  should  be  laid  in  a  heap,  abotrt 
four  days,  to  sweat  and  grow  tough,  and  if  covered  with  blankets 
awhile  they  will  be  the  better.  The  bags  are  to  be  of  coarse  linen 
cloth,  about  eleven  feet  long,  and  about  two  and  a  half  yards  in  cir- 
cumference, and  should  contain  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  weight 
of  hops.     The  thicker  the  bag  the  better  they  will  keep. 

To  bag  them,  a  hole  is  made  through  an  upper  floor,  to  which  the 
open  bag  is  suspended;  the  hops  are  thrown  in,  in  small  quantities  at 
once,  and  trod  down  as  hard  as  possible,  for  the  harder  the  better. 
When  full,  sow  the  bag  up  as  tight  as  possible.  Mind  to  make  four 
handles  to  the  bag,  one  at  each  corner;  they  are  made  by  tying  a 
handfull  of  hojjs  in  each  corner,  so  as  to  form  knobs,  which  may  easily 
be  held  in  the  hand. 

The  best  poles  are  those  which  will  last  longest.  Chesnut  is  on 
tkis  account  to  be  preferred.  They  are  to  be  laid  under  cover  while 
not  in  use.  Each  pole  should  have  three  vines,  and  all  above  this 
should  be  broken  off  in  the  spring. 

A  hop  garden,  says  Air.  Young,  will  last  almost  for  ever  by  renew- 
ing the  hills  that  now  and  then  fail;  but  the  better  way  is  to  grub  it 
up  and  new  plant  it  about  every  twenty-five  years. 

Mats  made  of  the  splinters  of  ash,  will  answer  as  well  as  those 
made  of  hair,  for  the  purpose  of  being  used  in  kilns  for  drying  the 
hops. 

The  seed  of  the  hop  is  the  strongest  part,  and  therefore  they  should 
always  be  grathered  so  soon  as  that  theae  will  not  fall  out  in  gather- 
ing- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  107 

The  long  white  hop  are  most  esteemed,  as  yieldiug  the  greatest 
quantity  and  I.eing  the  most  beautiful.  Care  Siiould  be  taken  to  hare 
the  hops  all  of  one  kind,  for  if  there  be  dififerent:  w^/ts  some  will  pro- 
bably ripen  before  others. 

Some  say  that  the  hills  in  the  hop  yard  should  be  covered  with  ma- 
nure every  fall,  to  preserve  the  roots  irom  the  frosts;  but  this  may 
probably  be  the  suggestion  of  those  who  are  often  so  minutely  aice 
that  their  practice  is  not  warranted  by  the  expense.  Experience, 
however,  is  the  best  guide  in  these  matters. 

The  culture  of  hops  is  very  profitable.  At  the  price  they  com- 
mand in  this  country,  an  acre  of  them,  well  cultivated,  will  amount 
to  two  or  three  huj'lred  dollars,  and  the  expense  to  the  acre  of  rais- 
ing them  will  not  b^  found  more  than  one  hundred.  Nor  need  the 
farmer  be  fearful  of  a  want  of  market  for  them,  as  they  are  always  a 
good  article  for  exportation  if  not  wanted  at  home. 

HORN  DISTEMPER.     Sfe  article  N eat  Cattle. 

HORSE.  The  marks  of  a  good  horse  are,  a  high  neck,  full  breast, 
a  lively  eye,  a  strong  back,  stifi"  dock,  full  buttocks,  ribs  reaching 
aear  to  the  hips,  good  hoofs,  and  a  good  gait. 

Something  has  already  been  said  of  colts,  and  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  ought  to  be  treated  while  they  are  acquiring  their  growth. 
(See  article  Foals.)  The  next  point  is  to  treat  of  them  as  horses  ; 
and  here  a  matter  of  the  first  consequence  is,  to  break  them  well. 

The  common  method  of  forcibly  breaking  them  is  absurd  in  prac- 
tice, and  often  dangerous  to  him  that  undertakes  it.  In  this  case,  as 
in  most  others,  gentle  means  are  best.  First  let  a  young  horse  be  tam- 
ed by  leading  with  a  bridle ;  then  saddle  him,  and  lead  him  about 
smartly  so  as  to  make  him  trot ;  then  put  weights  in  the  saddle,  add- 
ing more  and  more  till  he  carries  the  full  weight  of  a  man.  If  he  be 
very  fractious,  lead  him  with  anotl>er  horse.  After  be  has  been 
broke  to  leading  well,  and  carrying  burdens,  let  him  be  gently  mount- 
ed, while  some  person  holds  him.  and  rode  abotit  in  a  ploughed  field, 
with  another  horse  before  liim  if  necessary,  until  he  learns  to  go  by 
himself. 

In  teaching  a  young  horse  to  draw,  the  same  gentleness  should  be 
used;  first  putting  him  with  a  gentle  horse  that  is  true  to  draw,  then 
loading  him  lightly,  and  gradually  heavier,  till  he  has  learned,  like 
his  fellow,  to  exert  his  utmost  strength. 

Horses  should  have  a  dry  pasture,  and  a  good  shade  in  it.  Mr. 
L'Hommedieu  makes  mention  of  a  horse  which  was  always  kept  in  a 


108  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

dry  poor  pastare  of  wild  grass,  and  yet  was  always  fat;  and  the  rea- 
Bon  assigned  for  this  was,  that  the  horse,  for  w:int  of  water,  learned  to 
feed  at  night,  when  the  dew  is  on,  which  renders  the  grass  more 
nourishing. 

The  best  method  of  keeping  working  horses  in  Summer,  where  it 
ean  be  conveniently  done,  is  to  soil  them,  that  is,  to  feed  them  in  sta- 
bles, cutting  and  carrying  iu  grass  to  feed  them.  The  grass  should  be 
cut  and  carried  in  during  the  morning,  while  the  dew  is  on.  They 
should  also  have  a  yard  adjoining  the  stable,  in  which  they  may  run 
at  large  at  times.  This  practice  is  a  great  saving  of  pasture  land; 
the  horses  will  keep  much  belter,  aud  they  are  always  at  hand  for 
service.     See  article  Soiling,  &:c. 

Clover,  whether  green  or  dry,  is  considered  one  of  the  most  nou- 
rishing grasses  lor  horses.  When  grain  is  given  them,  let  it  be  either 
ground,  well  soaked  or  boiled. 

A  horse  should  never  be  exercised  so  severely  as  to  make  him 
sweat  profusely ;  or  if  he  should,  let  him  be  well  covered  uniil  hi* 
skin  and  hair  be  dried,  and  in  the  mean  time  thoroughly  rubbed 
down.  He  should  at  all  times  be  kept  clean,  and  his  skin  currie<}, 
tut  not  too  severely. 

A  very  common  error  with  farmers  is  to  keep  more  horses  than 
they  want,  and  to  keep  them  all  but  poorly  ;  but  the  reverse  of  this 
can  only  be  called  economy.  Keep  but  few  horses,  and  keep  them 
"well.  On  a  stock  or  dairy  farm  of  a  hundred  acres,  two  horses,  if 
properly  kept,  are  sufficient ;  and  double  that  number  is  enongh  on  a 
farm  of  the  same  size  that  is  kept  under  the  plough ;  or  rather,  on 
such  farm,  two  horses  and  a  yoke  of  oxen  may,  perhaps,  be  found  ad- 
visable. 

When  a  horse  is  on  a  journey,  be  sboald  be  fed  with  hay  and  pro- 
Tender,  and  not  turned  out  to  grass  at  evening,  for  his  joints  to  be 
stiffened  by  the  dampness  and  cold  of  the  night,  after  the  warm  and 
severe  exercises  of  the  day.  To  prepare  him  for  a  journey,  he  ought 
also  to  be  previously  kept  to  hay,  with  provender,  and  have  moderate 
daily  exercise,  in  order  that  his  fat  may  become  more  solid,  and  of 
course  his  body  better  enured  to  latigue.  He  ought  also  to  be  shod 
some  days  before  hand,  iu  order  that  the  shoes  may  become  easy  to 
his  feet. 

It  would  be  desirable  to  have  a  remedy  for  the  dryness  of  hay,  so 
W  to  render  it  a  more  agreeable  foot!  for  horses.  Set  a  basket  of  snow 
before  a  horse  while  at  hay,  an«l  he  will  take  a  mouthful  of  hay  and 


FARMER^S  ASSISTANT.  109 

then  of  snow,  alternately;  w^hich  shews  that  something  is  needed  to 
jupply  the  waste  of  saliva  which  is  absorbed  by  the  hay  while  eating. 
In  summer,  horses  might  have  water  constantly  before  them,  but  the 
cohlness  of  winter  precludes  any  substitute  but  snow,  unless  some- 
thing of  this  kind  should  be  found  in  feeding  plentifully  with  carrots. 
These  they  are  fond  of,  and  it  is  found  that  they  will  keep  them  as 
well  as  oats,  and  fatten  those  that  are  lean.  Some  other  kinds  of 
roots  would,  perhaps,  answer  equally  well,  particularly  when  steamed. 
It  is  chiefly  what  may  be  called  a  comfortable  state  of  existence,  or  a 
freeness  from  sufiferiug,  which  occasions  a  horse  to  grow  fat;  and 
therefore,  the  less  they  suffer  from  thirst,  from  want  of  agreeable  food, 
or  comfortable  stabling,  or  from  too  severe  exercise,  the  easier  they 
may  be  kept  in  good  order.  These  things  are  apt  to  be  little  attend- 
ed to ;  and  in  this  way  animals  entrusted  to  our  care,  which  it  is  our 
-^uty  to  make  comfortable  while  they  exist,  are  often  neglected,  and 
left  to  suffer. 

A  disorder  has  for  some  years  past  been  gaining  ground  among 
horses  in  Pennsylvania,  and  is  extending  to  those  of  this  state: — 
this  is,  an  excessive  watering  or  running  at  the  mouth,  which  prevails 
mostly  during  the  middle  and  latter  part  of  the  growing  season,  and 
tends  to  weaken  and  impoverish  these  animals  exceedingU'.  The 
disorder  seems  to  follow  the  culture  of  clover,  where  the  lands  have 
been  manured  with  gypsum.  Probably  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the 
clover  on  which  they  have  been  used  to  feed,  is  the  remote  cause  of 
the  disorder.  If  so,  either  a  change  of  grass,  or  a  chanjie  in  the  man- 
ner of  keeping  the  horses,  or  both  together,  would  no  doubt  remove 
the  disorder.  Let  the  farmer  whose  horses  are  thus  alHicted  pursue 
the  method  o{  soiling  during  the  growing  season,  and  let  their  footl  be 
Lucerne,  or  some  other  good  grass  for  that  purpose,  and  it  is  believed 
this  will  be  found  an  adequate  and  very  profitable  remedy.  See  arti- 
cles Grasses,  Soiling,  &c. 

When  the  teeth  of  an  old  horse  meet  together  they  project  out- 
ward, so  as  nearly  to  form  a  right  angle  ;  those  of  a  young  horse  meet 
almost  perpendicularly ;  those  of  the  middle  age  are  a  medium  be- 
tween the  former  and  latter;  so  that  the  age  of  a  horse  can  be  very 
nearly  ascertained  by  attention  to  these  circumstances.  The  lips 
also  of  a  youns  horse  are  firm  and  hard,  and  his  mouth  is  very  fleshy 
within  the  palate.  The  lips  of  an  old  horse  are  soft  and  flaltby,  ami 
easy  to  turn  up,  and  his  mouth  is  lean  above  and  below  the  palate, 
and  seems  only  to  have  the  skin  over  the  bones.     The  teeth  of  th^ 


iro  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

yonng  horse  are  usually  short,  those  that  are  old  usually  Ions; — though 
these  signs  are  not  always  certaia.  The  eye  of  an  old  horse  usually 
appears  sunken,  that  of  the  young  more  full.  The  ends  of  the  teeth 
of  a  two  year  old  horse  have  no  black  spot?  ;  at  three,  they  have  two 
of  these  io  the  two  middle  under  teeth;  at  four,  they  have  four  such 
spots ;  at  five,  they  have  six,  each  front  tooth  then  having  one  ;  and 
at  six  these  spots  disappear  in  the  four  mid<lle  teeth,  and  are  only 
seen  in  the  two  next  the  tusks,  which  at  the  age  of  five  make  their 
appearance.  Those  well  experienced  in  these  matters  have  other 
signs  hy  which  they  can  judge  pretty  nearly  of  the  age  of  a  horse  af- 
ter he  has  passed  six  years,  but  not  with  certainty. 

See  further,  article  Mares.  For  the  diseases  of  horses,  see  articles 
BoT-WoRMs,  FaI/SE-Quarter,  Farcy,  ForNDERixo,  Gigs,  Glan- 
ders, Gripes,  Hide-Bound,  Lampas,  Poll-Evil,  Scratches,  Spa- 
viR,  Staggers,  Strain,  Surfeit,  Tumor,  Vives,  Ulcer,  Wheez- 
ing, WiNDGALL  and  Yellows. 

When  horses,  by  long  journeys  or  otherwise,  have  the  skin  rubbed 
eS*  their  backs,  let  a  little  dry  white  lead  be  occasionally  sprinkled 
over  the  raw  flesh,  which  will  soon  heal  the  sore.  Persons  on  jour^ 
Beys  ought  always  to  carry  some  of  this  article  with  them  for  this  pur- 
pose. When  the  withers  of  the  horse  are  wrung,  and  swelled  by 
means  of  bad  saddles  or  otherwise,  the  swelling  may  be  allayed  by 
washing  the  part  with  brine,  or  with  salt  and  black  soap  mixed  to- 
gether, applied  to  the  swelling.  Any  restrlngent,  such  as  alum  beat 
up  with  the  white  of  eggs,  is  also  good. 

HORSE-HOE.  This  is  a  kind  of  plough  invented  by  Mr.  TulJ. 
It  differs  from  the  one  horse  plough,  in  having  shafts  like  those  of  a 
one  horse  carriage,  and  the  plough  is  regulated  in  a  great  degree  by 
the  shafts,  so  that  much  depends  on  the  steadiness  of  the  horse.  Its 
being  but  little  used,  would,  however,  seem  to  favor  the  opinion  that 
a  is  no  better  than  the  common  one  horse  plough. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  Ill 


I. 


IMPROVEMENT  of  LAND.  This  is  to  be  effected  in  various 
ways  and  by  various  means,  Some  lands  are  naturally  sterile  from 
the  want  of  moisture  ;  some  from  having  too  much  of  this ;  some  from 
being  destitute  of  certain  ingredients  in  the  soil,  and  some  from  being 
too  rough  and  stony  for  any  profit  in  tillage. 

In  the  southern  states,  too,  there  is  much  land  that  has  become  ste- 
rile by  severe  cropping  with  tobacco  and  Indian  corn,  and  by  being 
left  bare  have  washed  much  into  gullies  by  the  rains. 

Many  dry,  sandy  and  gravelly  tracts  may  be  converted  into  a  state 
of  fertility  by  the  addition  of  clay  or  marie  to  the  soil.  See  article 
Mam'res.  There  are  also  particular  grasses  that  flourish  in  very  dry 
soils,  which  would  enable  the  farmer  successfully  to  pursue  the  soiling 
system  of  culture  in  such  lands.  See  articles  Grasses,  Soiling,  &c. 
Where  such  soils  are,  however,  at  the  same  time  very  broken,  per- 
haps the  culture  of  the  locust  would  be  found  the  most  profitable  to 
which  they  could  be  applied.  The  mulberry  might  also  be  cultivat- 
etl  in  the  lower  and  richer  parts.  See  articles  Locust  and  Mul- 
berry. 

Where  lands  are  too  retentive  of  moisture,  and  at  the  same  time 
not  too  level  nor  too  steep,  they  may  be  greatly  benefitted  by 
hollow  drains.  See  article  Hollow  Drains.  Where  they  are  flat 
meadows,  marshes  or  morasses,  they  are  to  be  laid  dry  by  open  drains. 
See  articles  Bog-Meadows  and  Ditches.  Where  they  lie  too  low 
for  any  draining  of  this  kind,  they  are  either  to  be  raised  by  the  means 
of  warping,  or  the  water  is  to  be  raised  out  of  the  ditches  lor  the  pur- 
pose of  being  thrown  back  into  the  river,  ocean  or  elsewhere,  from 
whence  they  came,  by  the  means  of  Avind  machinery.  In  this  man- 
ner a  large  proportion  of  Holland  has  been  redeemed  from  the  ocean ; 
and  considerable  tracts  in  Cambridgeshire  and  Lincolnshire,  in  Eng- 
land, have  in  like  manner  been  made  very  productive  for  grass.  In 
this  case,  the  ditches,  which  are  to  be  large  and  proportioned  to 
the  extent  of  the  tract  drained  off,  are  to  be  run  to  that  point  where 
it  is  most  convenient  to  raise  the  waters  out  of  them  by  wind-machin- 
ery, to  be  carried  off.  But  in  order  to  this,  a  dyke.  Or  bank,  is  first  to 
be  raised  round  that  part  of  the  land  adjoining  th«  side  from  whencp 


U2  PARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

it  is  overflowed ;  or  if  it  be  an  island,  it  is  to  he  banked  all  round. 
The  hank  is  to  be  of  a  height  and  thickness  suitable  to  the  weight 
and  turhulence  of  the  waters  it  may  at  times  have  to  encounter  from 
without.  It  is  advisable  to  plant  the  outside  of  these  banks  with  the 
shrub  willow,  which  grows  along  the  banks  of  the  lowlands  of  many 
of  the  small  rivers  of  this  country;  but  by  no  means  should  ?uch 
banks  l)e  planted  with  trees  of  large  growth,  as  these  are  liable  to  be 
upset  by  the  winds,  and  might  thus  do  great  mischief  by  letting  in  the 
adjacent  waters. 

The  method  of  raising  land  by  the  means  of  warpins,  as  it  is  called 
in  Great-Britain,  where  it  has  been  succesffully  practised,  is  a  modern 
agricultural  improvement.     Along  the  banks  of  rivers  low  tracts  are 
frequently  to  be  found  which  are  constantly  overflowed,  either  by  the 
usual  titles  or  by  the  floods  of  the  spring.     If  the  waters  of  such  ri- 
vers have  considerable  sediment,  the  method  of  warping  is  calculnted 
to  retain  that  sediment,  and  thus  to  raise  the  land  on  which  the  sedi- 
ment settles,  so  as  eventuall}^  to  make  it  sufficiently  high  and  dry  for 
growing  all  kinds  of  vegetables.     In  this  way  considerable  has  been 
done  on  the  banks  of  the  Don,  the  Ouse,  and  the  Trent,  in  Great> 
Britain.     The  low  land  which  is  thus  to  be  raised,  has,  first,  a  dyke, 
or  bank,  made  round  it,  as  before  descril)ed,  to  keep  out  the  neighl>or- 
ing  water,  except  where  it  be  necessary  to  let  it  in.    When  it  should 
be  let  in,  that  is,  when  it  has  considerable  sediment  to  de|)09it,  the 
floodgate  is  raised,  and  after  all  the  sediment  of  the  water  has  settled, 
it  is  let  oS*,  and  a  new  supply  of  muddy  water  is  again  taken  in  at  the 
next  tide,  or  at  the  next  flood.     Where  this  operation  can  be  cori- 
stantly  repeated  at  every  tide,  its  efl"ects  will  of  course  be  much  the 
most  eflectual,  or  will  All  up  the  enclosed  land  more  rapidly.     Men- 
tion is  made  in  "the  Complete  Grazier''  of  lands  in  Great-Britain 
being  raised  two  feet  by  this  operaiion  in  a  short  time.     The  land 
thus  made,  too,  is  of  the  best  quality,  being  similar  to  the  finest  inter- 
vale.    No  doubt  many  extensive  marshes  on  our  tide  rivers,  and 
others,  might  in  this  way  be  converted  into  the  finest  lands.     But  this 
plan  appears  to  be  admirably  calculated  for  filling  up  the  swamps  on 
the  Missisippi,  by  letting  parts  of  its  turbid  stream  through  the  levees, 
during  the  season  of  high  water,  into  the  back  grounds,  when  proper- 
ly embanked,  and  letting  the  water  ofl"  again  into  the  bayous  or  eUe- 
where,  after  its  sediment  has  been  deposited. 

Soils  which  are  naturally  destitute  of  the  necessary  ingredients  to 
promote  vegetiitioD,  are  mostly  of  the  turf  or  pete  kinds.    They,  how- 


FAHMER'S  ASSISTANT.  113 

erer,  abound  but  little  in  this  county,  or  at  least  but  seldom  to  any 
great  depth.  They  appear  to  be  principally  masses  of  woody  and 
vegetable  matter  mixed  together,  and  only  decomposed  to  a  certain 
extent,  owing  probably  to  a  want  of  sufficient  heat;  for  if  these  earths 
be  mixed  with  lime  in  compost;,  they  will  then  undergo  a  complete 
decomposition,  and  thus  be  rendered  good  manure.  They  mostly 
abound  in  low  wet  morasses. 

Where  such  land  is  laid  suflBciently  dry,  and  exposed  to  the  sun, 
the  surface,  by  being  frequently  stirred,  will  undergo  that  further  de- 
composition which  serves  to  endue  it  with  fertility,  by  making  it 
more  tenaceous  of  moisture  ;  but  it  is  most  effectually  helped  by  the 
adilition  of  sand  or  gravel  carted  on  it,  which  renders  it  suitable  to 
the  production  of  many  iiinds  of  good  grasses.  If  such  lands  can  be 
flooded  with  waters  which  have  a  sediment  to  deposit,  by  the  method 
of  n-arping  before  mentioned,  this  will  most  effectually  ameliorate 
them.  Mention  is  also  made  of  land  of  this  description  being  very 
successfully  cultivated  for  grass  in  Great-Britain,  by  the  improved 
method  of  irrigating  meadows  which  is  practised  there.  See  article 
Water. 

The  clearing  of  lands  which  are  full  of  rocks  and  stones  is  some- 
times a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty,  and  in  some  instances  it  may  be 
advisable  to  calculate  whether  the  additional  value  of  the  land,  when 
cleared,  will  warrant  the  expense.  Lands  may  be  very  stony,  and 
yet  of  considerable  value  for  pastures,  or  for  fruit  or  other  kind  of  trees. 
See  article  Stones. 

The  southern  j)lanter  finds  himself  in  possession  of  large  tracts  of 
worn-out  lands,  which,  when  abandoned  to  commons,  are  termed  old 
fulJ.  These,  perhaps,  do  not  yield  him  six  cents  an  acre  by  the  year. 
How  shall  he  renovate  these  lands,  and  thus  restore  beauty,  plenty 
and  fertility,  to  that  portion  of  country  where  nature  has  been  most 
profuse  in  her  benefits,  but  which  have  been  blasted  by  the  hand  of 
man  ? 

There  is  nothing  more  easy.  Let  the  planter  change  his  system 
of  culture.  Let  him  turn  his  attention  to  the  rearing  of  a  due  propor- 
tion of  cattle,  to  afford  him  the  means  of  making  manures.  Let  him 
keep  his  grounds  well  stocked  A\ith  clover,  Lucerne  and  other  suitable 
grasses;  attend  to  the  soiling  culture,  before  mentioned^  where  hi« 
grounds  are  suitable  :  be  diligent  in  manuring ;  plough  often  and  well, 
and  he  would  soon  find  that  his  now  barren  wasfps  i\  ^iiM  bloom  with 


114  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

fresh  smd  increased  verdure.  Those  grounds,  however,  whicli  hav« 
become  too  much  washed  and  deejily  gullied,  shoukl  be  plented  witl> 
locust  and  other  good  wooil.  In  short,  it  is  Itelieved  tliat  the  soiling 
husbandry  in  particular  is  amply  calculated,  iu  a  very  profitable  man- 
ner, to  change  into  a  state  of  hij^h  fertility  the  mo6t  exhausted  tract* 
ia  the  southern  states. 

The  improvement  of  a  country,  not  only  by  bringing  its  waste  and 
barren  tracts  to  as  high  a  degree  of  protluctiveness  as  they  will  bear, 
but  by  adding  the  highest  additional  fertility  to  the  better  parts,  is  the 
foundation  of  its  wealth  ami  prosperity.  The  greater  the  char  profits 
which  are  derived  from  the  lands,  the  greater  is  the  wealth  of  a  coun- 
try-. Farmers  with  large  tracts  of  lands  which  yifdd  little  more  than 
the  value  of  the  labor  bestowed  on  them,  aa  is  but  too  often  the  case 
in  some  parts  of  this  country,  are,  properly  speaking  poor — their  con- 
dition is  but  little  better  than  that  of  the  laborer  who  earns  his  daily 
bread.  With  the  best  culture,  a  little  land  is  sufficient  to  make  tlte 
farmer  comfortable:  but  wi'h  such  culture  as  is  frequently  to  be  found, 
bis  troubles  are  often  proj)ortioned  to  the  extent  of  his  grounds.  The 
best  culture  is  a  source  of  rational  pleasure ;  the  worst,  of  unceasing 
vexation.  The  highest  improvement  of  a  country  rs,  then,  properly  a 
source  of  happiness,  as  well  as  of  wealth,  to  its  inhabitants. 

In  the  highly  cultivated  country,  as  much  less  ground  is  requisite 
for  the  support  of  each  family,  they  are  brought  closer  together;  thus 
much  lalx)r  is  savetl  in  Iheir  necessary  intercourse.  The  distances, 
also,  to  the  necessary  places  of  resort  are  proportionately  shortened, 
and  thus  much  is  saved  in  all  the  usual  jHirjioses  of  transportation  and 
travelling.  Such  are  some  of  the  most  proraineut  advantages  result- 
ing from  highly  improving  a  country. 

INARCHING.  Sometimes  called  grafting  by  approach.  It  is 
tlie  joining  of  two  young  trees  together,  that  stand  sufficiently  near 
each  other  for  that  purpose.  A  |>art  of  each,  of  the  same  length  ami 
width,  is  to  be  cut  away,  so  that  when  the  trees  are  brought  together, 
the  pared  edges  of  the  rinds  will  exactly  join.  A  tongue  should  be 
made  in  the  one,  and  a  slit  in  the  other  to  receive  it ;  to  keep  the 
parts  from  slipping,  they  are  to  be  bound  firmly  together,  and  coated 
with  wet  loam,  or  otherwise,  as  is  directed  in  article  Grafting.  Af- 
ter about  four  months  they  will  be  so  well  joined  that  the  top  and 
bottom  of  either  part  may  be  taken  away  at  pleasure ;  so  that  in  this 
w  ay  the  top  of  one  tree  may  be  set  on  the  slock  of  another.  Let  the 
parts  taken  away  be  cut  jtrelty  close  and  sloping,  and  cover  the  end- 
>\  ilh  Forsyth's  compcr;ition,  or  w  ith  a  coal  of  wet  loam. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  115 

Tliis  operation  is  to  be  performed  ia  April  or  May,  and  is  common- 
ly practised  upon  myrtles,  jassraines,  walnuts,  firs,  pines  and  other 
trees,  il.at  will  not  succeed  by  common  grafting.  Forsyth,  however, 
observes,  that  the  trees  thus  reared  will  be  weakly. 

INDIAN  CORN;  (Zea.)     This  plant  is  a  native  of  this  country, 
and  seems  to  be  adapted  to  every  part  of  it  that  is  tolerable  to  be  in- 
liahiied.    There  is  but  one  species  of  it,  though  many  varieties,  owing 
perhaps  principally  to  the  variations  of  climate.     It  requires  a  warm 
summer,  and  this  is  afforded  even  beyond  the  most  northerly  parts  of 
our  territory.     It  is  a  very  valuable  grain  for  almost  every  purpose  ; 
its  great  increase  when  properly  cultivated,  and  the  trifle  that  is  re- 
quired for  seed,  must  ever  render  it  a  favorite  of  the  poor,  as  well  as 
an  article  of  profit  with  the  wealthy.     The  praises  of  "  the  hasty  pttd- 
ding''  have  been  deservedly  sung ;  and  surely  those  at  least  whose 
"  bones  are  made  of  Indian  corn,"  will  readily  assent  to  the  eulo- 
giums  of  the  poet  on  the  cheap,  yet  delicious,  meal  which  this  pud- 
■ding,  with  milk,  alTords.    It  is  to  be  hoped  that  our  farmers  will  never 
so  far  ape  the  fashions  of  the  proud  and  wealthy,  as  to  acquire  a  taste 
sufficiently  vitiated  to  reject  the  hasty  pudding ;  as  it  is  believed  that 
a  proper  proportion  of  this  diet  is  as  well  calculated  to  raise  a  fine, 
■hardy  and  comely  race  of  men  and  women,  as  perliaps  any  other 
whatever.     The  author  of  "  The  Wealth  of  Nations"  observes,  that 
fliose  of  the  Irish  whose  principal  food  is  potatoes  and  milk,  are  the 
handsomest  and  best  made  of  any  people  in  Great-Britaiu :  but  in 
point  of  taste  the  hasty  pudding  is  very  far  superior— and  is  probably 
better  calculated  to  nurture  rising  generations  of  the  first  order,  such 
as,  with  proper  culture,  will  be  better  fitted  to  be  "  the  lords  of  hu- 
man kind,"  than  those  who  arrogantly  assume  this  pre-eminence. 

In  Kentucky,  and  elsewhere  on  the  rich  lands  of  the  Ohio,  a  hun- 
dred bushels  of  Indian  corn  are  frequently  raised  to  the  acre.  This 
has  also  been  done  in  this  county,  (Herkimer)— but  so  great  a  crop 
in  this  northern  climate  is  not  to  be  expected,  unless  on  some  chosen 
spots,  and  where  the  best  cultivation  is  bestowed.  Two  very  larse 
crops  which  were  raised  near  the  city  of  New- York  some  years  since, 
deserve,  however,  to  be  noticed,  as  specimens  of  what  good  culture 
is  capable  of  producing  in  this  state.  Mr.  Stevens,  who  raised  the 
largest  of  these  crops,  each  being  the  product  of  three  acres,  ploughed 
hh  ground  three  times,  and  previous  to  the  last  ploughing  carted  on 
700  horse.- cart  loads  of  street  manure.  He  planted  his  seed  in  douhle 
rows,  about  eight  inches  apart,  and  the  seeds  were  set,  diagonalfv 


lia  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  same  distance  from  each  other:  between  each  of  these  double 
rows  was  left  a  space  of  five  anil  a  half  feet.  During  the  season  the 
crop  was  suckered  three  times,  and  the  intervale  were  repeatedly 
ploughed,  and  kept  clear  of  weeds  by  hoeing  and  hand  weeding.  His 
product  was  118  bushels  to  the  acre;  and  it  would  probably  have 
been  greater,  had  not  a  thunder-storm  injured  it,  by  blowiug  most  of 
it  down  at  the  time  the  ears  were  sitting. 

Mr.  Ludlow,  who  raised  the  other  crop,  had  98  bushels  to  the  acre. 
He,  however,  carted  only  200  loads  upon  his  three  acres.  He  plant- 
ed hb  seed  in  single  rows,  which  were  four  feet  apart,  with  the  grains 
set  eight  inches  asunder.  Probably  the  reason  of  this  crop  being 
less  than  the  other  was  on  account  of  legs  manure  having  been  carted 
on;  as  it  is  doubtful  whether  planting  in  double  rows  is  better  than 
planting  in  single. 

From  all  this,  it  appears  that  a  greater  quantity  of  Indian  corn  can 
be  raised  on  an  acre  than  any  other  grain ;  and  considering  its  nutrir^ 
mental  qualities,  it  may  safely  be  saiil  that,  next  to  rice,  a  given  piece 
of  ground  cultivated  with  this  grain  will  support  a  greater  number  of 
people  than  that  which  is  cultivated  with  any  other  grain  whatever. 

The  proper  soils  for  this  grain  are  the  sandy,  sandy  loam,  gravelly 
loam,  and  rich  red,  or  dark  coloured  earths,  which  have  no  clay  in 
them.  Stiff  clays  are  very  unfit  for  this  crop,  and  cold  or  wet  loams 
are  not  much  better  unless  well  managed.  See  article  Chance  op 
Crops  for  the  best  method  of  managing  such  soils. 

Where  sward  land  is  intended  for  Indian  corn,  it  should  be  broken 
up  in  the  fall :  and  if  it  be  a  stiff  or  wettish  soil,  it  should  be  thrown 
up  in  high  narrow  ridges  by  a  second  ploughing.  In  the  spring  the 
ground  should  be  well  mellowed  with  ploughing  immediately  before 
planting.  Whatever  fresh  barn  dung  is  to  be  applied,  should  be 
ploughed  in.  Planting  in  rows,  agreeably  to  the  methods  before  de- 
9cribe<l,  is  best,  as  in  this  way  about  one  sixth  part  more  can  be  raised 
from  the  acre.  As  soon  as  the  plants  have  got  to  the  height  of  six 
or  eight  inches,  run  a  furrow,  with  a  one  horse  (dough,  as  close  to  the 
rows  as  possible  without  injuring  the  roots,  turning  the  furrows  from 
the  plants;  then  immediately  turn  the  furrows  back  again,  so  as  ef- 
fectually to  mellow  the  mold  into  which  the  roots  are  sborlly  to  ex- 
tend. Let  this  idouehing  be  of  a  good  depth — the  hoe  is  to  follow 
and  complete  the  dressing.  In  due  season  the  plough  is  again  to  be 
appliefl.  running  the  tiirroAvs  Tnrther  from  the  plants,  «nnd  turning  them 
towards  them,  which  is  again  to  be  followed  by  the  hoe.     After  thi^ 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  117 

another  lioeing  should  be  given,  for  the  purpose  of  extirpating  all  the 
after-growth  of  weeds,  which  in  old  ground  are  apt  to  spring  up  ;  but 
any  further  ploughing,  unless  at  a  considerahle  distance  from  the  rows, 
will  be  found  of  little  use  to  the  roots;  and  the  stalks,  which  are  now 
very  tender,  will  he  easily  broken. 

In  raising  this  crop,  the  essential  points  in  tilling  the  ground  are, 
to  keep  it  mellow  and  clear  of  weeds;  and,  therefore,  pluughin;:  im- 
mediately before  planting,  and  then  again  stirring  all  the  ground  that 
can  he  stirretl,  by  first  ploughing  closely  from  the  rows  and  then  back 
to  thr-m,  answers  the  purpose  of  mellowina;  most  eflectually.  As  the 
roots  extend  into  the  ground  thus  mellowed,  that  part  only  into  which 
they  have  not  yet  extended  can,  with  any  benefit  to  the  roots,  receive 
any  further  mellowing  from  the  plough. 

It  is  essential  to  have  this  plant  started  well ;  because  if  it  gels 
stunted  at  the  outset  by  the  cold  rains,  it  seldom  gets  the  better  of 
this  during  its  whole  groAvth,  particularly  if  the  soil  be  not  perfectly 
suitable  to  it.  To  prevent  this,  it  is  advisable  to  apply  some  stimu- 
lant? to  the  plants  at  that  time ;  and  the  best  for  this  purpose  are  bog 
dirt,  marie,  <1ug  out  of  bog  swamps,  ashes  and  gypsum.  The  latter 
ought,  however,  to  be  preferred  on  all  soils  to  which  it  is  suitable,  be- 
cause it  is  cheap  and  easily  applied. 

Where  a  soil  is  wettish,  it  ought,  after  being  well  mellowed,  to  be 
tlirown  up  into  ridges,  by  having  two  furrows  thrown  up  against  each 
other  at  proper  distances,  and  on  the  top  of  these  ridges  let  the  seeds 
be  planted,  the  planters  carrying  their  rows  crossways  of  these  ridges. 

Where  furrows  are  made  for  planting  they  ought  to  be  shallow,  not 
more  than  half  the  dej)th  of  common  ploughing.  It  would  be  as  well 
to  have  no  furrow  at  all,  but  merely  to  harrow  the  ground  smooth  be- 
fore planting,  and  then  to  plant  in  rows,  by  a  line  or  mark  drawn 
along  the  ground  by  hand,  with  an  instrument  made  for  the  purpose. 
A  more  complete  method,  however,  is  to  drill  in  the  seed,  by  a  li^ht 
drill  plough  that  may  be  easily  made  for  the  purpose.  One  of  this  de- 
scription may  be  drawn  by  hand  ;  and  may  be  so  contrived  as  to  make 
a  small  furrow  about  two  inches  deep,  drop  the  seeds  at  proper  dis- 
tances into  the  furrow,  and  cover  the  seeds,  all  in  one  operation. 
— These  methods,  however,  are  for  ground  that  is  entirely  clear  of 
stones. 

If  this  crop  be  harvested  too  early  it  will  lose  much  by  shriukin^. 
It  is  also  found  by  experiments,  that  where  it  is  topped  at  the  usual 
time,  the  crop  will  he  considerably  less  than  if  i{  stacd  without  top 


118  FARMER'S  ASSISTAIST. 

pin?.  If,  therefore,  it  he  topped  at  all,  it  ought  not  to  he  done  before 
the  grains  have  hardened.  It  is  believed  that  the  best  plan  is  to  cut 
np  the  stalks  by  the  roots  some  days  attcr  the  usual  time  for  topping, 
and  set  it  up  in  sliocks  to  harden.  In  this  mode  the  ears  derive  the 
same  nourishment  from  the  stalk  which  they  do  when  it  is  left  stand- 
ing. A  large  additioual  quantity  of  valuable  fodder  is  thus  saved, 
•while  at  the  same  time  the  ground  is  cleared  of  its  incumbrance,  so 
to  be  ready  for  sowing  a  crop  of  wheat  the  same  fall.  The  additional 
labor  of  husking  out  the  corn  in  tins  manner  is  very  trifling.  The 
shocks  are  to  be  of  such  size  as  can  be  conveniently  tied  together  at 
the  top  by  bands  of  straw,  in  such  manner  as  to  keep  out  the  rain. 

The  best  and  soundest  ears  should  be  selected  for  seed,  rejecting 
the  grains  which  grow  near  each  end.  In  order  to  accelerate  the 
growth  of  the  crop,  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  soak  the  seed  in  watet 
a  little  warm,  for  about  twenty-four  hours.  Another  method  is  to 
pour  boiling  water  upon  it,  let  it  stand  on  it  about  half  a  minute,  then 
cool  it  as  soon  as  possible,  and  plant  it  before  it  dries.  In  this  man- 
ner the  seed  will  come  up  much  sooner;  but  if  there  should  be  cold 
rains  immediately  after  planting,  there  is  danger  that  it  will  not  come 
up  at  all.  Sec  article  Germination  of  Plants,  for  a  safe  method 
of  quickening  its  growth. 

If  the  seed  be  smeared  all  over  with  tar,  and  then  have  ashes  or 
gypsum  sprinkled  on  it  sufficient  to  render  it  fit  for  handling,  and  be 
then  planted,  neither  birds  nor  squirrils  will  touch  it.  In  this  case, 
however,  it  is  necessarj'  fir?t  to  soke  it  sutTicienfly  to  make  it  vege- 
tate; as  without  this  the  coat  of  tar  will  keep  out  the  moisture,  and 
prevent  the  seed  from  sprouting. 

The  proper  time  for  jdanting  depends  on  the  climate.  In  this 
gtate,  however,  from  the  twentieth  cf  Mhv  to  the  first  of  June  is  about 
the  best  time.  The  old  Indian  rule,  whioli  perhaps  is  the  best,  is  to 
plant  when  the  leaves  of  the  oak  tree  have  grown  to  be  as  large  as  a 
squirrel's  foot. 

A  change  of  seed  is  advisable  with  this  grain  as  with  all  otherg, 
but  a  change  of  seeds  grown  on  different  soils  is  |>erhaps  the  most  re- 
quisite. Changes  of  this  seed  ou«jht  rather  to  be  from  east  to  west,  or 
from  west  to  east,  allowing  the  climate  to  be  the  same,  than  from 
north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north.  If  it  be  carried  from  the  south 
too  far  to  the  north,  the  crop  will  he  large,  but  will  not  ripen  before 
the  frosts;  and  if  carried  from  the  north  too  far  to  tlie  south,  it  will 
ripen  earlier  than  i»  requisite,  but  the  crop  w  ill  be  goiall.     But  it 


FARIMER'S  ASSISTANT.  119 

must  be  remembered  that  climates  often  depeml  on  altitude  as  well 
as  on  latitude.  Where  this  crop  is  raised  on  bog-meadows,  which  are 
always  subject  to  early  frosts,  the  seed  should  be  brought  from  the 
northward,  in  order  that  it  may  ripen  before  the  frosts. 

Of  the  varieties  of  this  plant,  those  which  have  the  longest  ears 
and  the  largest  grains  ti'ill  yield  most;  but  farmers,  in  many  situa- 
tions, must  have  regard  to  that  kind  which  ripens  earliest,  whether 
the  most  productive  or  not. 

The  practice  of  making  very  large  hills  to  this  crop  while  growing 
is  unnecessary.  The  principal  point  in  hoeing  is,  to  destroy  all  the 
weeds,  drawing  at  the  same  time  a  little  fresh  earth  round  the  stalks 
while  young.  There  ought,  however,  to  be  sufficient  of  earth  even- 
tually drawn  round  to  support  the  stalks.  The  growth  of  suckers  is 
injurious  to  the  crop,  and  ought  to  be  either  pulled  up,  or  bent  down 
to  the  ground  and  covered  with  earth  sufficient  to  kill  them;  and  this 
is  believed  to  be  the  better  way,  as  by  this  means  the  principal  stalk 
is  not  injured  by  Avounding.  It  is  said  that  sprinkling  some  gypsum 
on  the  silk  of  the  ear  will  make  it  fill  to  the  very  end. 

Indian  corn  will  grow  many  successive  years  on  the  same  ground  j 
but  it  is  never  advisable  to  i)lant  it  more  than  two  years  successively, 
as  it  is  a  crop  which  exhausts  the  soil.  Like  some  other  crops  it  can- 
not be  overdone  by  manuring,  but  on  the  contrary  the  richer  the  soil 
the  greater  will  be  the  clear  [irofit;  ami  if  the  ground  be  left  too  rich 
for  wheal  or  barley,  it  can  be  put  to  the  more  proiitable  culture  of 
hemp. 

This  plant  may  be  gradually  habituated  to  a  more  northerly  or 
southerly  climate.  For  instance,  take  the  Virgir/ia  corn  and  plant  it 
one  or  two  miles  farther  north  ever}'  summer,  and  by  the  time  it  has 
got  into  Canada  it  will  be  the  small  Canada  corn,  and  vice  versa. 

INOCULATING,  or  BUDDING.  This,  says  Forsyth,  is  the 
best  method  of  grafting  niost  kinds  of  fruit,  particularly  stone  fruit. 

He  observes  that  this  operation  is  best  learned  by  pnictice,  but 
gives  directions  for  performing  it,  a»  follows:  Provide  a  sharp  pen- 
knife, with  the  end  of  the  handle  flat  for  raising  the  bark ;  prepare 
your  slips  intended  to  be  inserted;  choose  a  smooth  part  of  the  slock, 
five  or  six  inches  above  the  ground  for  dwarfs,  for  half  standards  about 
three  feet,  but  for  standards  about  six  feet ;  cut  horizontally  across 
the  stock  about  an  inch  in  length,  and  from  that  slit  the  bark  down- 
wards about  two  inches,  so  as  that  the  incisions  be  in  the  form  of  the 
letter  T  ;  Don't  cut  so  deep  as  to  wound  the  stock.     Aftvjr  havio"- 


120  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

cot  off  the  leaf  from  the  bud,  leaving  the  foot  stock  remainins,  y*i 
make  a  cross  cut  about  half  an  inch  below  the  eye,  and  with  your 
knife  slit  off  the  bud,  with  pan  of  the  wood  to  it,  in  form  of  an  es- 
cotcheon;  pull  off  with  your  knife  that  part  of  the  wood  which  was 
taken  with  the  bud,  observing  that  the  eye  of  the  bud  be  left,  for 
the?e  th?t  lose  their  eyes  in  striarjiac  should  be  rejected.  Then,  hav- 
ing gently  raised  the  bark  of  the  stock,  insert  the  bod;  place  it 
smooth  l)etween  the  rind  of  the  stock  and  the  wood ;  and  having  fit- 
ted it  in  as  exactly  as  possible,  wind  the  whole  closely  round  with 
bass  mat  made  soft  by  soaking  in  water,  (soft  rope  yarn  will  perhaps 
an?wer  as  well)  beginning  at  the  under  part  of  the  slit  and  proceeding 
to  the  top,  minding  not  to  bind  round  the  eye  of  the  bud,  which  should 
be  left  open. 

In  three  or  four  weeks  you  will  perceive  which  have  taken,  by 
their  appearing  fresh,  and  then  the  bandages  round  these  should  be 
loosed.  In  April  following,  cut  off  the  stock,  sloping,  three  inches 
above  the  bud ;  fasten  the  shoot  [>roceeding  from  the  bud  to  the  stump 
of  the  stock  for  the  ensuing  season,  and  the  next  season  take  off  that 
stump  close  above  the  bud. 

The  time  for  inoculating  is,  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  middle 
of  August,  or  rather  at  the  time  when  the  bark  raises  easily,  and  the 
bo<l8  will  come  off  well  from  the  wood.  The  most  general  rule  is, 
when  you  observe  the  buds  formed  at  the  extremity  of  the  same  year's 
shoots,  for  then  they  have  finished  their  spring  growth.  Cloudy  wea- 
ther, and  mornings  and  evenings,  are  the  best  for  the  operation.  For- 
syth says,  the  slips  or  cuttings  to  be  used  for  budding  should  not  be 
thrown  into  water.  He  adds,  that  all  trees  of  the  same  genus,  which 
agree  in  their  flavor  and  fruit,  will  take  upon  each  other.  All  the 
nut  bearing  trees  will  therefore  grow  on  each  other,  and  the  same 
may  be  observed  of  all  the  plumb  bearing  treeS;  including  the  almond, 
I)each,  nectarine,  apricot,  Sec. 

To  the  foregoing  directions,  which  are  also  those  of  Mr.  Miller, 
Mr.  Forsyth  has  added  drawirjgs,  which  are  calculated  better  to  ex- 
plain the  process  of  inoculating. 

INSECTS.  Immense  numbers  of  these  prey  upon  the  labors  of 
the  farmer,  against  the  ravages  of  which  it  is  in  most  instances  diffi- 
colt,  or  impossible,  to  provide  adequate  remedies.  Such,  however, 
as  have  been  discovered  shall  be  here  noticed,  as  something  is  said  of 
different  kinds  ol  insects. 

It  may  be  firstly  observed,  that  the  leaves  of  the  elder,  rSambums 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  121 

nigra)  are  extremely  oflfensive  to  all  insects  as  long  as  the  leaves  re- 
main green — the  dwarf  kind  is  said  to  be  most  offensive.  Elder 
leaves  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  an  antidote  in  regard  to  in- 
sects, as  far  as  its  use  can  be  rendered  practicable  or  profitable. 

In  treating  of  insects,  we  shall  begin  with 

Canker-Worms.  These  are  insects  of  the  species  of  the  miller, 
which,  about  eighty  years  since,  made  their  first  appearance  in  the 
oldest  settled  parts  of  the  New-England  states,  and  were  called  can- 
ker-worms because  they  produced  an  effect  upon  apple  trees  similar 
to  that  produced  by  canker.     See  article  Frlit-Trees. 

One  of  the  most  effectual  methods  to  prevent  their  ascending  the 
trees,  which  the  female  does  early  in  the  spring  to  deposit  her  eggs, 
is  that  which  is  found  equally  effectual  iu  preventing  the  ascent  of 
caterpillars,  that  is,  to  fasten  a  strip  of  sheepskin,  with  the  wool  out- 
wards, round  the  body  of  the  tree.  This,  it  is  found,  is  a  barrier 
which  they  cannot  pass,  as  in  attempting  to  climb  over  the  wool, 
they  lose  their  hold  and  fall  down.  Another  method  is,  to  fasten  a 
strip  of  oiled  paper  round  the  tree,  with  the  lower  edge  projecting  out 
an  inch  or  more,  and  slanting  downwards,  which  edge  they  cannot 
pass.  These  strips  must  be  closely  fitted  round  the  tree  to  prevent 
their  passage  between  them  and  the  body.  Dr.  Mitchiil  recommends 
scraping  off  the  shaggy  parts  of  the  bark,  in  order  to  deprive  them  of 
places  of  safety  from  birds,  and  of  shelter  from  storms.  In  addition 
to  <his,  let  the  bodies  and  the  large  limbs  of  the  trees  be  white-washed 
with  lime  and  water,  or  with  a  mixture  of  old  urine  and  soapsuds,  as 
is  recommended  by  Mr.  Forsyth  for  keeping  off  all  insects.  The 
urine  is  to  be  saved  in  vessels  for  the  purpose. 

Caterpillars.  The  above  directions  for  keeping  canker-worms 
from  trees,  are  equally  applicable  to  these  insects. 

When  a  nest  of  these  is  formed,  run  a  pole  into  it,  twist  it  round 
till  the  nest  and  its  contents  are  wrapped  round  the  pole,  and  bring 
the  whole  down  and  kill  the  worms.  Let  this  be  done  early  in  the 
morning,  when  the  worms  are  all  in  the  nest.  If  any  escape  this  ope- 
ration, repeat  it  when  they  have  rebuilt  the  nest. 

Where  the  nests  have  been  suffered  to  ren>aiu  till  the  insects  have 
left  them,  young  broods  for  the  ensuing  year  will,  the  next  spring,  be 
found  on  the  trees  in  the  chrysalis  state,  under  the  shelter  of  a  dry 
curled  leaf  or  two,  bound  with  filaments  like  cobwebs ;  these  should 
be  searched  for  and  destroyed. 

Ki 


122  far:\ier's  assistant. 

It  is  said  that  caterpillars  will  take  shelter  under  woollca  rag?, 
when  |)ut  on  trees  where  they  resort,  from  which  they  can  be  easily 
taken  and  destroyed. 

Gri  Bs.  Lar^e  maggots,  produced  from  the  eggs  of  a  certain  spe- 
cies of  the  butterfly,  very  injurious  to  corn  by  eating  its  roots.  They 
are  said  to  produce  the  beetle.  Frequent  ploughings  will  nearly  de- 
stroy them. 

Top,  or  Spindle-Worms.  White  worms  resembling  gnibs,  fonDd 
in  the  central  hole  which  is  formed  by  the  leaves  of  Indian  corn  ; 
aud  they  there  eat  off  the  stem  which  forms  the  top  of  the  plant. 
They  are  mostlv  to  be  found  near  barn-yards,  and  in  rich  spotE. 
They  are  discovered  by  their  excrement  appearing  on  the  leaves. — 
Sprinkling  the  coru  with  a  weak  lye  of  wood  ashes  will  extirpate 
them. 

Black-Worms.  Ash  coloured  worms,  with  black  stripes  on  their 
backs.  When  full  grown  they  are  of  the  thickness  of  a  goose-quill, 
and  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long.  They  hide  in  the  soil  by  day, 
and  commit  their  dej)redations  by  night.  They  eat  off  young  plants 
above  ground,  and  frequently  endeavor  to  draw  them  under.  It  is 
said  that  manuring  the  ground  with  salt  will  drive  them  from  it,  and 
that  lime  and  ashes  will  also  have  nearly  a  similar  effect. 

Red-Worms.  These  are  slender,  about  an  inch  long,  with  a  hard 
coat,  and  pointed  head.  They  eat  off  wheat,  barley  and  oats,  above 
the  crown  of  the  roots;  and  they  also  eat  through  turnips,  potatoes, 
Arc.  No  adequate  remedy  known,  unless  it  be  lime  and  soot,  and 
effectual  summer  fallowings,  which  destroys  them  by  depriving  them 
v\'  food. 

Palmer-Worms.  About  h^lf  an  inch  in  length,  with  many  legs, 
and  very  nimble.  They  give  to  apple  trees  the  same  appearance 
that  the  canker-worm  does.  IMr.  Deaoe  says,  tliat  great  numbers  of 
Ihem  appeared  in  the  year  1791,  in  Cumberland,  (ilassachusetts)  and 
eat  off  all  the  leaves  of  the  trees,  except  the  membraneous  parts,  but 
that  next  year  they  disappeared.  They  let  themselves  down  from 
the  trees  by  threads,  similar  to  the  spider.     No  remedy  known. 

Timber-Worms.  The  smaller  kind  merely  eat  into  the  sap  of 
wood,  and  turn  it  into  j)owder  post,  as  it  is  commonly  called.  Fell- 
ing timber  about  the  middle  of  winter,  the  time  it  has  least  sap  in  it, 
tvill  obviate  this  difficulty. 

The  large  boring  worm  takes  it?  residence  chicny  in  pine  timber. 
They  are  hatched  in  the  cavities  of  the  bark,  and  being  small  when 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  l^ 

they  enter  the  wood,  they  grow  larger  as  they  proceed,  till  their  bor- 
ing may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  If  the  trees  be  scorched 
in  a  light  flame,  says  Mr.  Deane,  or  steeped  in  salt  water,  it  will  de- 
stroy these  worms,  or  prevent  their  entering  the  woo<l. 

The  same  author  also  makes  mention  of  formidable  armies  of 
worms  which,  in  the  year  1770,  over-ran  the  county  of  Cumberland 
about  the  middle  ot  July.  They  stripped  the  vegetables  of  iheir 
leaves,  leaving  only  the  stems — were  extremely  voracious — moveU 
in  apparent  haste,  and  all  in  the  same  direction — crawled  over  houses, 
ic.  unless  they  found  an  entrance.  Other  parts  of  the  eastern  slates 
have  since  experinced  their  ravages. 

The  best  security  found  against  them  was,  to  stop  their  course  by 
trenches,  having  their  sides  leaning  over,  out  of  which  they  could  not 
climb  after  they  had  got  into  them. 

Hessian  Flt.  Well  known  for  its  ravages  in  wheat.  Remedy  : 
Immerse  the  seed  wheat  ten  or  fifteen  seconds  in  boiling  hot  water ; 
cool  it  suddenly ;  dry  it,  with  lime  or  gypsum  sprinkled  upon  it,  and 
sow  it  immediately.  This  process  will  assist  its  growth,  in  addition 
to  its  killing  the  nits  of  the  fly,  which,  by  a  good  glass,  are  said  to  be 
discernible  near  the  sprouts  of  the  grains  that  are  infected-  This 
remedy  stands  well  attested  by  several  publications,  and  is  believed 
to  be  eS'ectual. 

This  insect  appears  to  be  now  on  the  decline,  and  its  duration  will 
probably  be  found  to  be  temporary.  Though  we  have  given  it  a  Ger- 
man appellation,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  it  ever  was  known  iu 
Germany,  or  any  other  part  of  Europe. 

Maggots.  Troublesome  to  the  roots  of  cabbages,  and  to  turnips 
and  radishes.  Let  the  ground  have  a  previous  manuring  with  salt, 
which  it  b  believed  will  be  effectual ;  if  not,  let  some  brine,  about  as 
strong  as  sea  water,  be  sprinkled  once  only  about  the  plants  ;  for  if 
repeated  it  will  probably  be  found  hurtful  to  them.  Or  perhaps  a 
better  way  is,  to  apply  a  weak  brine  more  than  oace>  Let  it  be  done 
just  after  a  rain. 

Yellow  Striped  Blg.  Formidable  to  young  plants  of  cucumber, 
squash,  melons,  pumpkins,  d:c.  while  in  the  seed  leaf.  Water  made 
bitter  by  bruising  tansy  in  it,  and  sprinkled  over  the  plants,  will  keep 
off  this  insect;  but  tliis  must  be  frequently  repeated,  particularly  after 
rains.  Green  elder  leaves  are  also  very  useful  in  this  case.  Sprink- 
ling soot  over  the  plants  while  the  dew  is  on  is  also  good,  but  must  b« 
repeated  after  every  rain.    Gypsum  is  also  recommended  for  lliis  pur* 


124  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

pose.  It  is  advisable  to  plant  a  great  many  seetls  in  erery  hill,  and 
then  some  of  them  will  stand  the  better  chance  of  escaping  the  rava* 
ges  of  these  insects. 

TiRMP  Fly.  This  eats  the  seed  leaves  of  the  young  turnip 
plants,  and  thus  destroys  them.  One  remedy  is,  to  sow  the  ground 
thickly,  partly  with  old  and  partly  with  new  seed,  which  will  come 
up  at  diflerent  times,  and  thus  a  part  of  the  one  or  of  the  other  will 
stand  a  chance  of  escaping.  Gypsum,  soot  and  tansey  water,  applied 
as  before  mentioned,  is  good.  Elder  leaves,  frequently  dragge<l  over 
the  ground  after  the  plants  are  up,  is  also  efficacious.  Some  advise  to 
sow  some  tobacco  plants  with  the  turnip  seed,  or  rather  to  set  some 
of  the  plants  where  the  seed  is  sown.  Smokes  made  to  the  wind- 
ward side  will  help  to  keep  o£f  this  insect ;  and  rolling  the  ground  af- 
ter sowing,  is  also  recommended,  but  this  must  be  done  where  the 
ground  is  rery  smooth.  The  benefit  derived  from  this  consists  in 
compressing  the  surface  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  afford  fewer  hiding 
places  in  it  for  these  insects.  It  is  also  advisable  to  let  ducks  into  a 
turnip  field,  as  these  will  destroy  the  insects  without  injuring  th« 
young  plants. 

Garden  Flea.  Very  destructive  to  young  cabbage  plants  while 
in  the  seed  leaf.  Remedy :  Elder  leaves,  gypsum,  soot  and  tansy 
water,  as  before  mentioned.  Soap-suds  is  also  good  to  be  epriakled 
over  them. 

Lice.  These  infest  cabbages,  «fcc.  They  may  be  extirpated  by 
smokes,  particularly  of  tobacco,  but  the  frosts  generally  destroy  them. 

Weavel.  a  little  black  bug,  very  destructive  to  wheat,  either  in 
bams  or  graneries.  On  thrusting  your  hand  into  a  bin  of  wheat  in- 
fested with  them,  considerable  warmth  will  be  felt ;  but  as  they  are 
usually  collected  together,  every  part  of  the  heap  or  bin  should  be 
examined. 

They  may  be  destroyed  in  a  close  apartment  by  fumigating  it  with 
burnt  sulphur  for  about  twelve  hours.  But  Mr.  L'Hommetlieu's  me- 
thod of  extirpating  them  is  believed  to  he  the  best.  Having  found 
his  bin  of  wheat  full  of  weavel,  he  emptied  the  bin,  white-washed  the 
inside,  and  then  returned  the  wheat  into  it,  sprinkling  a  handful  of 
fine  unslacked  lime  over  every  four  or  five  bushels  thus  returned,  and 
§ve  or  six  handfulls  was  sprinkled  over  the  whole.  lu  ten  or  twelve 
day?  the  weavel  had  wholly  disappeared.  When  the  wheat  was  used, 
he  winnowed  it,  which  took  out  the  lime. 

Weavel  may  he  sifted  out  of  wheat  by  a  seivc,  which  will  let  them 
pass  through  and  retain  the  wheat. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  125 

Grasshoppers.  Prodigious  quantities  of  these  are  some  years  ge- 
uerated  in  upland  mowing  grounds.  Upland  pastures  do  not  produce 
so  many,  owing  probably  to  the  feet  of  the  cattle  destroying  many 
before  they  are  brought  forth.  Low  wet  meadows  or  pastures  seliiom 
produce  many  of  them.  The  only  known  remedy  against  them,  and 
it  is  sometimes  very  inadequate,  is  to  destroy  them  by  raisiug  large 
flocks  of  turkies  and  other  poultry,  which  feed  on  them. 

Lice  on  cattle,  and  Ticks  on  sheep,  may  be  added  to  the  above 
catalogue  of  destructive  insects.  Where  colts  and  young  neat  cattle 
become  lousy,  by  reason  of  poor  keeping  or  otherwise,  the  lice  are  to 
be  destroyed  by  oiling  the  creature,  or  washing  it  with  a  decoction  of 
tobacco;  and  then  they  should  have  better  keeping  to  prtvent  a  re- 
turn of  the  lice.  And  where  sheep  become  full  of  ticks,  which  will 
sometimes  kill  them  if  not  removed,  the  ticks  are  to  be  destroyed  by 
a  fumigation  of  tobacco  smoke.     See  article  Sheep. 


J. 


JAUNDICE,  see  articles  Overflowing  of  the  Gall,  and  Yel- 
lows. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE  ;  (Helianthus  Tuleroms.)  This 
is  a  hardy  perennial  plant,  with  a  large  bulbous  root.  The  stalk 
grows  to  a  considerable  height.  It  is  cultivated  by  the  roots,  in  the 
manner  of  potatoes.  The  roots  are  particularly  useful  for  feeding 
swiue  when  boiled,  and  are  said  to  very  productive.  One  cultivatoj 
found  its  produce  to  be  about  four  hundred  and  eighty  bushels  to  an 
acre,  without  manure.  Another  raised  between  seventy  and  eighty 
tons  from  an  acre.  They  will  grow  well  in  almost  any  drj  soil,  even 
if  it  be  poor.  When  cut,  and  ground  in  a  cider  mill,  they  make  gootl 
food  for  horses,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  salt.  Mr.  Legaux,  of 
Springmill,  (Penns)  Ivania)  raises  this  root  from  Dutch  seed,  and  has 
had  them  eight  and  nine  inches  in  diameter.    He  says  they  are  easily 


126  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

kept  through  winter  in  the  ground,  nothing  being  requisite  Turther 
than  to  dig  a  trench  round  them  to  prevent  the  water  injuring  theoj. 


K. 


KILLING  OF  BEASTS.  But  little  need  be  taid  on  this  subject, 
as  bulcheriog  is  only  to  be  learned  by  practice.  But  the  cruel  man- 
ner in  which  butchering  is  often  performed  is  deserving  of  some  ani- 
madversion. The  killing  of  beasts  for  our  use  b  lawful,  but  surely  it 
is  not  so  to  torture  them.  He  who,  in  the  act  of  taking  the  life  of  an 
nnoffending  creature,  deals  not  the  stroke  of  death  with  mercy — must 
either  have  become  callous  from  inveterate  habit,  or  in  feeling  must 
be  of  little  higher  grade  than  the  animal  against  which  his  hand  is 
raised. 


L. 


LAMP  AS.  An  excrescence  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  of  a  horse, 
which  hinders  him  from  feeding.  Young  horses  are  most  liable  to  it. 
It  is  cured  by  applying  a  hot  iron,  made  for  the  purpose,  to  the  swol- 
len parts.  Care  must  be  taken,  says  Gibson,  not  to  penetrate  so  deep 
as  to  scale  the  bone  that  lies  under  the  upper  bars  of  the  mouth,  for 
this  would  be  very  injurious  to  the  animal. 

LAYERS.  Trees  and  shrubs  that  yield  no  seed  in  this  climate, 
and  which  cannot  be  propagated  by  slipe  or  cutting?,  may  nererthe- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  J27 

iJBss  be  propagated  by  layers.  The  manner  of  doing  it  is  as  follows  : 
Take  shoots  of  the  last  year's  growth,  bend  them  to  the  earth,  and 
bury  them  half  a  foot  deep  in  a  good  mellow  soil ;  fasten  them  with 
hooks  to  prevent  their  rising,  and  bend  the  tops  so  as  to  bring  them 
above  the  surface.  A  slit  upwards  should  be  made  in  that  part  of  the 
twig  which  lies  deepest,  or  a  wire  drawn  tightly  round  it  there,  to 
prevent  the  sap  from  mounting  too  fast.  Let  the  ground  be  covered 
to  keep  it  moist,  and  let  it  be  watered  if  necessary.  When  the  twigs 
have  struck  root  they  may  be  cut  off  in  the  spring  and  transplanted  in- 
to the  nursery. 

The  time  for  laying  evergreens  is  July  or  August,  and  October  for 
deciduous  trees.  Many  herbaceous  plants  may  also  be  propagated  in 
this  way. 

LICE.    See  article  Insects. 

LIMES  TONE.  If  sulphuric,  nitrous  or  muriatic  acid,  be  laid  on 
stone  which  has  lime  in  it,  an  effervescence  will  be  produced,  by 
which  means  limestone  can  always  be  known. 

Limestone  is  the  last  of  the  stony  incrustations  of  the  earth,  and 
appears  to  have  been  formed  before  "  the  dry  lands  appeared."  Che- 
mists suppose  it  to  have  been  formed  from  shells,  such  as  those  with 
which  many  parts  of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  now  abound  in  prodi- 
gious qantities ;  and  the  skeletons  of  fish  and  other  aquatics,  ofteii 
found  in  this  stone,  would  seem  to  confirm  this  opinion. 

Some  limestone  is  principally  combined  with  argillaceous,  some 
mostly  with  silicious  earths ;  and  some  is  found  to  contain  a  large  pro- 
portion of  magnesia.  The  former  is  geuerally  known  by  its  hardness 
and  smoothness  of  surface  when  broken,  and  is  the  least  calculated  to 
benefit  a  clay  soil.  The  silicious  limestone  is  the  best  for  clay,  and 
is  more  soft  and  rough  when  broken.  That  which  contains  much 
magnesia  makes  what  the  English  farmers  call  hot  lime,  and  is  of 

much  less  value  as  a  manure,  as  magnesia  is  found  to  be  destructive  to 
vegetation. 

"  The  magnesian  limestone,"  says  Mr.  Tennant,  "  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  that  which  is  purely  calcarious,  by  the  slowness  of  its 
solution  in  acids,  which  is  so  considerable  that  even  the  softest  kind 
of  the  former  is  much  longer  in  dissolving  than  marble.  It  has  also 
frequently  a  chrystalized  structure,  and  sometimes,  though  not  always, 
•mall  black  dots  may  be  seen  dispersed  through  it."  (See  Henry's 
Chemistry  for  the  most  accurate  method  of  ascertaining  the  presence 
of  magnesia  in  limestone.) 


128  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

LOAM.  This  earth  has  the  greatest  resemblance  to  clay  of  any 
other,  hut  is  not  so  solid  and  compact,  nor  does  it  shrink  and  crack 
open  as  clay  does  when  dried.  It  is  of  different  colours,  but  that 
ivhich  is  of  a  deep  or  pale  red,  or  brownish  jellow,  is  the  best.  That 
which  is  of  a  pale  colour,  and  is  hard  and  slippery  when  wet,  i»  poor. 
Frequently  what  are  called  loams  have  a  litile  clay  in  them.  Pro- 
bably clays  and  loams  are  nearly  the  same  earths;  with  this  differ- 
ence, however,  that  clays  have  more  or  less  of  alumine,  of  which 
loams  are  destitute. 

Loams  are  generally  cold  and  wet,  and  in  their  natural  state  are 
more  or  less  covered  with  moss,  particularly  in  the  colder  climates. 
Some,  however,  are  dry  and  very  natural  to  grass,  and  will  in  iheir 
natural  ?tate  j)roduce  good  crops  of  most  kinds  of  grain,  Indian  corn 
excepted.  This  is  a  soil  which,  whether  cold,  wet  or  dry,  will  pay 
well  for  manuring  it,  particularly  with  horse  and  sheep  dung,  and 
other  warm  manures;  but  where  it  is  wet,  it  is  most  effectually  mend- 
ed and  fertilized  by  hollow  draining.     See  that  article. 

LOCUST;  (Rohina.)  This  is  a  very  valuable  tree  for  cultiva- 
tion, as  it  will  grow  well  on  any  poor  barren  sand  hill,  and  indeed  ia 
eyery  kind  of  dry  soil,  where  the  climate  is  not  too  cold.  A  sandy 
loam  or  gravelly  loam  is  best  suited  for  it.  It  will  cause  grass  to  grow 
on  the  poorest  soil ;  so  that  ground  planted  with  these  trees  answers 
the  double  purpose  of  forest  and  pasture.  The  trees  will  acquire  a 
very  considerable  size  in  fifteen  years,  and  in  about  twenty-five  year* 
are  full  grown.  The  timber  is  excellent  for  the  trunnions  and  knees 
of  vessels,  for  cogs  for  mills,  and  for  many  other  purposes  where  hard* 
ness  and  durability  are  required.  For  posts  for  fences  it  will  last  fifty 
or  sixty  years,  and  for  firewooil  it  is  also  excellent.  On  the  whole, 
consideriDg  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  locust,  it  may  be  accounted 
the  most  profitable  which  the  farmer  can  cultivate.  See  article  Fo- 
rests for  an  easy  method  of  cultivatiug  this  tree. 

It  is  said  that  immersing  the  seeds  of  this  tree  for  half  a  minute  in 
boiling  hot  water,  and  then  cooling  them  before  planting,  will  make 
them  sprout  very  suddenly,  and  grow  two  feet  high  the  first  year. 

LOMBARDY  POPLAR;  (Populus.)  This  tree  acquires  its  full 
size  in  about  twenty  years,  by  which  time  it  will  contain  half  a  cord 
of  wood.  It  is  grown  at  present  merely  for  ornament ;  but  when 
fire-wood  becomes  necessary  to  be  planted,  probably  this  tree  may  be 
thought  worth  cultivating  for  fuel.  It  will  not,  indeed,  make  fuel 
ei^ual  in  quality  to  that  of  the  locust ;  but  as  it  grows  faster,  its  inferi- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  129 

oritj  of  quality  may  perhaps  be  compensated  by  the  rapidity  of  its 
growth.  It  must,  however,  be  dried  before  it  will  be  fit  for  fuel,  as  ia 
it£  green  state  it  will  not  burn  to  any  advantage.  It  is  easily  raised 
from  slips  or  cuttings,  and  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil. 

In  France  and  Italy  this  tree  is  cultivated  and  trimmed  up  for 
beams  and  other  limber  for  buildings  ;  but  probably  it  will  grow  larger 
ia  those  countries  than  in  this  state,  as  the  climate  there  is  more 
friendly  to  its  growth. 

LUCERNE.    See  article  GaABBESk 


M. 


MANGEL  WURZEL,  or  SCARCITY  ROOT;  (Beeta  Alhis- 
iuna.J  This  species  of  the  beet  is  very  highly  esteemed  in  many 
parts  cf  Europe  for  feeding  milch  cows.  It  imparts  a  fine  flavor  to 
the  milk  and  butter.  For  fatting  cattle  it  is  thought  not  to  be  so  sood 
as  carrots,  parsnips,  potatoes  and  turnips.  Its  abundant  foliage,  says 
the  compiler  of  "  The  Complete  Grazier,'  may  be  given  with  much 
advantage  to  horses,  sheep,  cows  and  swine;  but  for  the  two  last,  the 
leaves  should  be  separated  from  the  roots,  as  these  animals  will  not 
eat  them  fresh  from  the  plants.  They  are  not  subject  to  the  depre- 
dations of  insects.  The  seeds  of  this  vegetable  should  be  dibbled,  in 
the  month  of  April  or  May,  in  the  manner  of  the  common  beet,  but  at 
greater  distances  apart. 

MANURES.  A  knowledge  of  the  efficacy  of  different  manureg. 
to  what  soils  they  are  most  suitable,  and  the  means  of  making  the 
most  of  each,  is  worthy  of  the  particular  attention  of  the  farmer.— 
Lands  are  seldom  so  rich  but  it  may  be  a  matter  of  gain  to  increase 
their  fertility;  and  few  tracts  are  so  poor  but,  with  proper  tillage  and 
manuring,  they  may  be  made  the  residence  of  plenty. 

Manures  are  composed  of  all  those  substances  which  either  direct' 
ly  or  indirectly  supply  plants  with  their  requisite  food,  by  aoeacs  $." 

17 


I3d  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

which  thej  are  enabled  to  expand  and  come  to  maturity.    See  articF*^ 
Food  of  Plants. 

In  the  first  place,  different  earths  wilF  serve  to  manure  each  other. 
Thus  clay  is  a  fertilirer  of  a  light  samly  soif,  and  sand  is  equally  a 
fertilizer  of  clay.  Where  clay  land?  are  in  grass,  the  sand  should  be 
laid  on  as  a  top  dressing;  but  where  they  are  ploughed,  it  should  be 
well  mixed  with  the  soil  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  its  adbesioB. 
Sand  which  has  been  washed  down  in  roads  and  elsewhere  is  best. 
Where  clay  is  applied  to  a  sandy  soil,  it  should  be  carted  on  in  the 
fall,  and  spread  evenly  over  the  ground,  that  the  frosts  may  pulveiite 
it  before  it  is  mixetl  with  the  soil  in  the  spring.  The  better  these 
earths  are  mixed  in  the  respective  soils,  the  more  sensible  and  imme- 
diate will  be  their  effects;  but  their  principal  excellence  is,  that  they 
are  calculated  permanently  to  improve  the  soils  to  which  they  are 
applied.  Stiff  loams  are  also  in  the  same  way  assisted  by  sand,  an** 
sand  again  by  these;  but  neither  in  so  great  a  degree  as  in  the  for- 
mer cases.  Generally,  it  may  be  observed,  that  all  light  dry  soils 
are  improved  by  being  mixed  «-ith  heavy  earths,  and  nee  versa. 

Sand  and  fine  gravel  will  greatly  fertilize  the  soil  of  bog-meadows, 
and  this  earth  again  is  a  very  good  manure  for  all  upland  soils,  but 
best  for  those  which  are  light  and  drj-.  It  is  peculiarly  excellent  for 
Indian  corn  when  applied  to  the  hills,  and  is  very  good  for  flax,  hemp, 
and  most  other  summer  crops.  Like  gypsum,  it  is  friendly  to  the 
growth  of  white  cfover.  When  applied  to  upland  grasses,  it  should 
be  laid  on  a  top  dressing.  Every  bind  of  black  mud,  from  ponds  and 
9wamp?>  answers  a  somewhat  similar  purpose,  though  if  the  mud  be 
stiff  and  clayey  it  should  only  be  applied  to  a  light  dry  soil. 

The  different  sorts  of  marie  found  in  bog-swamps  are  also  excellent 
manures  for  all  upland  soils.  These  earths  are  usiually  found  at  the 
depth  of  from  one  to  three  feet  from  the  surface,  and  are  either  of  s 
whit^,  grey  or  brownish  colour.  The  former  is  the  most  efficacious, 
and  the  latter  the  least  so,  their  strength  being  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  which  they  contain.  It  is  best  to  mix 
these  earths  with  the  mass  of  black  earth  or  bog  dirt  that  forms  the 
upper  stratum,  in  order  to  reduce  their  strength;  and  when  thus  mix- 
ed, a  load  of  even  the  weakest  kind  is  more  efficacious  than  two  of 
common  barn  dung.  Their  operation  as  manures  is  similar  to  that  of 
gypsun^,  having  little  or  no  effect  when  first  applied  to  wheat  and 
rye,  but  by  its  afterwards  covering  the  ground  with  a  thick  growth 
of  white  clover,  it  is  then  rendered  fit  for  producing  largely  of  Ibesie 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT,  13I 

crops-  The  same  may  l>e  observed  of  the  bog  dirt.  Like  this,  too, 
they  are  peculiarly  excellent  for  Indian  corn  and  all  summer  grain^ 
and  a  less  quantity  is  suflBcient.  They  may  be  used  as  top  dressings 
or  otherwise. 

The  upland  marles  are  good  manures  for  sand}',  graveHy  and  other 
dry  soils.  They  are  also  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
carbonate  of  lime  which  they  contain.  Mr.  Young  mentions  the  tract 
«f  country  lying  between  Holkam  and  Houghten,  in  Elngland,  hav- 
ing been  converted  into  good  farming  lands,  which  formerly  were  so 
Mght  and  poor  as  to  be  kept  only  for  sheep  walks.  This  was  effected 
by  digging  up  the  marie,  which  wae  fousd  to  4ie  ^t  some  depth  un- 
derneath, and  manuring  the  soil  with  it,  at  the  rate  of  about  ©oe  hun- 
dred loads  to  the  acre. 

This  kind  of  marie  is  merely  a  clay,  with  sometimes  a  mixture  of 
fine  sand,  having  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime  ia 
h,  and  the  more  the  better.  It  is  generally  of  a  bluish  colour,  and 
like  other  marles  is  to  be  known  by  the  effervescence  it  occasions 
when  dropped  into  vinegar,  or  other  strouger  acid.  The  greater  the 
effervescence  the  better  -the  marte.  (See  Henry's  Chemistry  for  the 
means  of  ascertaining  how  much  calcareous  earth  any  marie  contains.) 
Upland  marie  should  be  carted  out  in  the  fall,  and  spread  as  directed 
for  clay.  The  other  kinds  should  be  thrown  up  in  a  dry  time  in  the 
fall,  and  may  be  carried  out  in  the  winter  or  other  time  when  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  firm  to  go  upon. 

Ashes,  as  a  manure,  are  found  to  be  more  efficacious  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  than  in  others;  generally  most  so  when  applied  to  lands 
near  the  ocean.  The  Long-Island  farmer  can  afford  twelve  cents  a 
bushel  for  even  leached  ashes,  w^hile  in  Herkimer  county  they  are 
suffered  to  lie  untouched  about  the  pot-asheries. 

Ashes  generally  answer  the  most  valuable  purpose  when  applied 
to  Indian  corn,  particularly  where  the  soil  is  not  suMable  to  this 
piant^  Where  the  soil  is  wet,  eold,  loamy  or  clayey,  the  plants  are 
apt  to  get  stunted  by  the  cold  rains  which  usually  fall  after  planting, 
and  then  the  ashes  serve  to  supply  the  natural  deficiencies  of  the  soil 
till  it  becomes  fertilized  by  the  summer  suns.  But  where  the  soil  is 
natural  to  the  growth  of  this  plant,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  its  beino- 
stunted  at  its  outset,  perhaps  it  may  be  better  to  apply  the  ashes  later, 
so  that  the  plants  may  derive  the  greatest  assistance  from  this  manure 
while  the  ears  are  setting  and  forming. 

Ashes  should  generally  be  used  for  top-dressings;  their  salts  Ios« 
sothing  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  soon  find  their  way  into  the  soil. 


132  FAKMER*S  ASSISTANT. 

Soot  18  much  more  efficacious  than  ashes ;  beside  salts,  it  eootaios 
oil.  The  soot  of  coal  is  esteemed  equally  as  gooti  as  that  of  wood. 
It  is  used  for  top-dressings,  and  requires  about  forty  bushels  for  an 
acre.  When  applied  to  winter  grain,  it  should  be  sown  in  the  spring ; 
and  the  same  may  be  observed  of  ashes.  Coal  soot  particularly  is 
very  good  for  meadow  lands  which  hare  become  sour  and  mossy. 
This  manure  can,  however,  only  be  had  in  considerable  quantities  in 
the  ricinity  of  large  towns. 

Of  salts  which  serve  as  manures,  the  principal  are,  the  common  sea 
gait,  aalt-petre  and  alkaline  salts.  To  the  latter,  the  virtue  of  ashes 
as  a  manure  is  principally  owing.  Salt-petre  should  be  dissolved  fb 
water,  in  which  the  seeds  should  be  soaked  before  sowing  or  planting. 
Instances  are  mentioned  of  its  good  effects  on  Indian  corn — the  seeds 
thus  soaked  started  much  quicker,  the  plants  grew  faster  and  larger, 
ripened  earlier,  and  produced  more  than  those  whose  seed  had  not 
been  thQs  previously  managed.  Mr.  Johnson  mentions  a  very  strike 
ing  difference  produced  in  a  crop  of  i^  heat  where  the  seed-wheat  of 
part  of  the  field  bad  been  thus  soaked,  and  part  had  not- -the  former 
being  near  a  fourth  larger  than  the  latter.  The  farmer  should,  there- 
fore, test  the  effects  of  salt-petre,  by  soaking  every  kind  of  seed  in  it 
before  sowing;  and  then,  by  comparing  the  products  with  other  parts 
of  his  fields  where  the  seed  bad  not  been  thus  prepared,  he  can  more 
exactly  ascertain  for  what  seeds,  and  in  what  soils,  its  effects  are 
most  evident.  Let  him  try  it  on  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  on  Indian 
corn  in  particular.  Let  the  seeds  be  soaked  about  twenty-four  hours, 
and  those  of  wheat  and  rye  be  dried  with  lime,  those  of  barley  and 
corn  with  gypsum. 

Sea  salt  is  a  good  manure  for  almost  every  soil  that  is  not  too  wet 
or  too  near  the  ocean.  Too  much  at  once,  however,  is  hurtful ;  three 
or  four  bushels  to  an  acre  is  probably  sufficient  at  a  time.  Let  it  be 
made  fine,  and  sown  in  the  broad  cast  way.  It  is  particularly  recom- 
mended for  flax,  though  perha|)s  its  effects  are  nearly  the  same  on 
most  plants.  When  applied  to  wheat  and  grasses,  it  should  be  sown 
in  the  spring. 

Lime  is  much  used  as  a  manure  in  Great-Britain  ami  oiber  north- 
erly parts  of  Europe  whe*e  the  summers  are  cool,  and  of  course  xvhere 
there  is  much  soil  that  is  cold.  Where  the  summers  are  warmer,  and 
therefore  the  soil  generally  warmer,  it  is  believed  thr.t  lime  is  not  ia 
general  so  efficacious  as  a  manure.  It  should  be  applied  to  soils,  or  in 
conoposts,  immediately  after  it  has  slacked. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  133 

Mr.  Livingston  is  of  opinion  that  the  effect  of  lime  as  a  manure 
consists  principally  in  imparting  heat  to  the  suil.  Others  have  main- 
tained that  its  use  is  in  sui)plying  plants  'with  carbonic  acid,  (6xed 
air)  with  which  it  abounds,  and  which  is  found  greatly  to  assist  their 
growth.  But  if  this  were  the  case  would  it  not  have  nearly  the  same 
efifect  on  light  warm  soils  that  it  has  on  those  w  hich  are  cold  and 
clayey  ?  Even  in  Great-Britain  lime  is  never  applied  to  warm,  sandy 
and  gravelly  lands.  If,  however,  the  farmer  has  any  cold,  loamy  or 
clayey  lands,  and  hag  limestone  at  hand,  he  ought  to  make  accurate 
trials  of  the  efficacy  of  this  manure ;  but  where  this  is  not  the  case,  it 
is  most  probable  that  in  thii  country  he  can  generally  apply  his  time 
to  more  advantage  in  procuring  other  manures.  In  stiff  clays  it  is, 
however,  believed  that  lime  will  be  found  particularly  useful  in  de- 
stroying the  adhesive  quality  of  the  soil.  {See  further,  article  Lime- 
Btoe.) 

Probably  if  lime  could  be  easily  impregnated  with  a  due  proportiou 
of  sulphuric  acid  it  would  then  be  as  efficacious  as  gypsum.  '-One 
hundred  parts  of  gypsum,''  says  Mr.  Chaptal,  "  contain  thirty  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  thirty-two  of  pure  earth,  and  thirty-eight  of  water."  "  If 
it  be  kept  in  a  fire  of  considerable  intensity  in  contact  with  powder  of 
charcoal,  the  acid  is  decomposed,  and  the  residue  is  lime." 

"  Gypsum  is  found  in  the  earth  in  four  different  states:  1.  In  the 
pulverulent  and  friable  form,  which  constitutes  gypseous  earth,  fossil 
flour,  Sec. — 2.  In  solid  masses,  which  constitute  plaister  stone — 3.  In 
stalactites,  and — 4.  In  determinate  crystals  of  different  forma." 

"  The  colour  of  gypsum,"  continues  the  same  author,  "  is  subjt-ci 
to  a  great  number  of  varieties,  which  are  the  signs  of  various  qualities 
relative  to  its  uses.  The  white  is  the  most  beautiful ;  but  sometimes 
it  is  grey,  and  in  this  case  it  is  less  esteemed  and  less  valuable.  The 
several  states  of  the  oxydes  of  iron,  with  which  it  abounds  in  greattr 
or  less  quantities,  constitute  its  rose  coloured,  red,  black  and  varie- 
ties." 

For  all  light,  hard  and  dry  soils,  which  are  not  too  near  the  ocean, 
Ais  is  an  exceeding  cheap  and  valuable  manure,  and  its  use  has  tend 
ed  greatly  to  equalize  the  respective  value  of  soils,  by  enabling  the 
farmer  'o  render  those  which  are  light  and  sterile  almost  as  produc- 
tive as  those  which  are  naturally  rich.  From  one  to  two  bushels  is  a 
sufficient  dressing  for  an  acre  for  a  year  or  more.  It  is  generally  best 
applied  to  red  clover,  by  which  means  the  soil  is  afterwards  well  fitted 
fof  other  crops.     It  is  excellent  to  apply  to  young  plants  of  Indian 


134  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

corn,  about  a  tea-spoon  full  to  each  hill.  It  is  perhaps  more  or  IcAa 
a  stimulant  to  every  kind  of  plant,  except  wheat  and  rye,  and  when 
gown  on  these  it  has  no  very  sensible  effect ;  but  it  afterwards  covers 
the  ground  with  a  fine  sward  of  white  clover,  which  is  au  indication 
that  it  has  enriched  the  soil,  and  fitted  it  for  a  better  succeeding  crop. 
A  rich  sward  will  always  afford  a  good  crop  of  wheat  or  rye.  In  or- 
der, therefore,  for  the  farmer  to  reap  immediate  benefit  from  this  ma- 
nure on  his  poor  fallow  ground,  let  him  apply  the  gypsum  to  it  early 
in  the  spring,  and  by  the  first  of  June  following  it  will  cover  the  field 
with  a  fine  growth  of  white  clover;  then  let  the  ground  be  broken  up 
and  well  ploughed,  and  a  good  crop  of  wheat  or  rye  may  be  expected, 
perhaps  nearly  double  the  amount  which  the  field  would  have  pro- 
duced without  the  gypsum.  The  field  will  also  be  left  much  richer 
than  it  w  as  before  the  gypsum  was  applied.  Gypsum  has  no  sensible 
effect  when  sown  on  herdsgrass. 

The  farmer  should  keep  a  due  supply  of  this  excellent  manure,  if 
his  linds  are  suitable  for  it.  He  will  find  thv\t,  with  proper  manage- 
ment, every  bushel  that  he  applies  to  his  soil  will  yield  him  double, 
treble,  and  even  fourfold  its  value,  according  to  his  soil,  and  the  price 
which  his  gypsum  costs  him. 

Mr.  Livingston  says,  that  in  travelling  through  Flanders  he  found 
that  pyrites  were  used  as  a  manure,  particularly  for  grass  lands,  at  the 
rate  of  about  six  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  seed  grain  is  also  covered 
with  it,  as  it  is  with  gypsum  in  this  country.  This  stone  is  sufficiently 
impregnated  with  sulphur  to  burn  when  dry,  and  this  is  the  method 
there  used  to  reduce  it  to  poAvder.  For  this  purpose  it  is  laid  in  heaps, 
aod  when  it  has  become  red  with  burning,  the  fire  is  extinguished  j; 
ferr  if  it  burns  longer  it  becomes  black,  and  then  the  quality  is  not  so 
good.  After  the  burning  it  is  easily  reduced  to  powder;  and  as  a 
proof  of  its  great  value  as  a  manure,  he  observes  it  is  carried  forty  and 
fifty  miles  into  the  country  on  the  backs  of  asses. 

Mr.  Livingston  is  of  opinion  that  the  sulphuric  acid  in  this,  as  well 
as  in  gypsum,  is  the  fertilizing  principle;  that  in  this  slow  combus- 
tion this  acid  is  ab£ori)ed  in  the  burnt  earth,  while  the  inflammable 
matter  is  dissipated ;  aud  that  ihe  union  of  the  alkali  aod  the  acid 
forms  a  salt  not  unlike,  in  its  chemical  relation,  to  gypsum,  or  per- 
haps one  that  is  more  soluble,  more  impregnated  with  the  acid.  Re- 
ferring also  to  a  circumstance  mentioned  by  Duhamel,  where  this 
acid  being  scattered  over  weeds,  with  the  view  of  destroying  them, 
only  made  them  grow  with  additional  vigor,  he  observes,  that  proba- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  135 

biy  if  it  were  diluted,  and  applied  to  the  soil,  or  mixed  with  wood 
ashes,  and  applied  in  that  way,  it  might  answer  the  purpose  of  gyp- 
sum. And  in  order  to  find  an  acid  that  would  be  cheaper  and  better; 
as  being  already  composed  of  a  constituent  part  of  vegetables,  he  ob- 
serves that  the  pyro-ligneous  acid  may  be  obtained  at  a  trifling  ex- 
pense, by  converting  wood  into  charcoal,  and  condensing  the  vapor  j 
as  the  charcoal  would  of  itself  repay  the  expense  of  the  operation, 
particularly  where  wood  is  cheap. 

Mr.  Livingston  further  observes,  that  he  has  seen  pyrites  on  his 
own  estate,  and  advises  that  experiments  be  made  of  this  earth.  It 
is  to  be  laid  in  beds  about  four  feet  thick,  and  while  burning  should 
be  stirred  with  a  rake.  When  cooled,  pound  it  fine  and  sift  it.  If 
the  earth  should  prove  too  inflammable,  he  advises  to  give  it  a  mix- 
ture of  lime,  which,  by  the  process  of  burning,  would  be  converted 
into  gypsum;  or  wood  ashes  would  be  found  useful,  if  the  pyrites 
be  in  lumps  it  must  be  reduced  to  a  coarse  gravel  before  burning. 

A  due  attefttion  to  the  recommendation  of  Mr.  Livingston  on  this 
subject  might  be  productive  of  very  beneficial  results,  as  no  doubt, 
many  parts  of  the  interior  of  this  country  may  be  Sbnnd  abounding  ic 
pyrites  which  are  destitute  of  gypsum. 

Pulverized  stone  coal,  says  Mr.  Muhlenbergh,  is  a  good  manure  for 
most  soils.  Four  hundred  pounds  are  sufiicient  for  an  acre.  Pulve- 
rized charcoal  is  also  said  to  be  good,  and  the  same  is  said  of  pulve- 
rized  slate,  limestone,  and  shells  of  shell  fish.  The  latter  are  also 
good  to  be  ploughed  in  whole  in  a  dry  soil,  for  the  purpose  of  increas- 
ing its  moisture. 

Burnt  clay,  good  for  cold  stiS"  soils.  See  articles  Burnt  Clat  and 
Burn-Baking. 

Every  part  of  animal  substances  can  be  converted  into  good  m'a- 
DUre.  The  flesh,  in  decomposing,  discloses  abundance  of  azote  and 
miasma  ;  and  some  of  the  constituent  parts  of  blood  are  alkaline  and 
sea  salts,  oil,  air,  water.  Sec.  all  of  which  are  essentially  the  food  of 
plants.  The  bones,  when  powdered,  are  good  as  a  top-dressing ;  and 
even  the  shavings  of  the  horns,  and  of  the  hide  when  curried,  are  good 
in  composts,  or  when  buried  in  light  soils.  The  flesh  should  be  spread 
over  the  ground  to  rot,  and  be  ploughed  in.  The  blood  is  best  used 
in  composts. 

Of  vegetable  manures,  those  which  are  either  ploughed  down  for 
jreen-dressings,  or  are  otherwise  buried  in  the  earth  while  green,  are 
nnicb  more  efficacious  than  when  dried,  especiaUy  if  long  exposed  t<? 


136  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  weather.  See  article  Green- Dressing.  Such  may,  howerer, 
be  useful  when  brought  into  cow-yarda  and  there  mixed  with  the 
dung  of  the  cattle,  by  which  means  they  absorb  much  of  the  stale  and 
juices  of  the  excrements  that  would  otherwise  be  lost.  For  this  pur- 
pose almost  every  kind  of  plant,  whether  green  or  dry,  ie  more  or  less 
useful. 

Of  the  contents  of  the  barn-yard,  horse  dung  is  the  worst,  and  sheep 
dung  is  much  the  best,  as  a  manure.  If  the  former  be  suffered  to  lie 
long  in  a  heap  it  will  be  spoiled  by  its  own  heat,  which  is  to  be  known 
by  its  white  mouldy  appearance,  and  therefore  should  be  applied  to 
the  soil  as  soon  as  possible.  It  is  most  suitable  for  cold,  wet  and  stiff 
soils,  and  the  same  may  be  observed  of  sheep  dung,  though  this  will 
greatly  assist  any  soil.  Cow  dung  is  best  for  light  dry  soils.  Every 
kind  of  barn  dung  is  much  injured  by  being  suffered  to  lie  exposed  t» 
the  rains,  and  therelore  should  be  kept  as  much  under  cover  as  |)OS8i- 
ble.  It  should  be  carted  out  in  the  spring,  and  immediately  buried  in 
the  euil  for  a  crop  of  Indian  corn  or  potatoes,  in  order  that  the  seeds 
of  weeds  which  it  contains  may  be  destroyed  by  the  hoeings  and  sub- 
sequent ploughings.  Or  if  any  part  of  the  dung  be  retained  in  the 
barn-yard  for  makins;  composts,  it  should  be  that  which  is  under  co- 
ver; and  if  this  be  the  horse  dung  let  it  he  immediately  mixed  with 
some  cooling  earths  which  are  fit  ingredients  for  composts. 

Theee  may  be  made  of  every  ingredient  that  can  be  gathered  to-' 
gether  that  is  calculated  to  manure  the  soil  for  which  it  is  inteniled. 
Clay,  sand,  mud,  lime,  peat,  &c.  may  therefore  be  parts.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  scrapings  of  the  back-yard,  turfs  on  which  cattle 
have  long  dunged,  old  rubbish  of  buildings,  earth  that  has  been  long 
covered,  banks  of  rich  earth  that  have  been  thrown  up  by  the  plough 
against  fences,  and  generally  all  rich  earths  that  can  be  spared.  On 
the  heaps  of  composts  should  be  thrown  all  the  soap-suds,  dish-water, 
meat  brine,  urine,  water  that  has  run  from  dung,  and  generally  all 
the  filth  that  is  collected  in  and  about  the  house  and  barn. 

Composts  should  be  frequently  stirred  up  from  the  bottom,  in  order 
that  a  due  degree  of  fermentation  may  eventually  pervade  the  whole 
mass ;  and  when  it  is  in  this  state  of  fermentation  it  should  be  carted 
out,  spread  evenly  on  ground  well  prepared,  ploughed  in  very  lightly, 
and  well  mixed  by  the  harrowings  which  cover  the  seed  that  is  at  the 
same  time  to  be  aown. 

A  heap  of  compost  of  this  kind  may  be  made  to  advantage  near 
the  dwelliag-hoose,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  from  it  the  additions 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  137 

that  may  be  affonletl  there.  Another  may  also  be  made  adjoining 
the  hog-pen,  to  receive  all  its  contents ;  lor  hog  dung  is  an  excellent 
manure  for  alt  dry  soils. 

These  heaps  of  compost  will  be  the  better  to  be  slightly  covered, 
so  as  to  admit  no  more  rains  than  will  serve  to  keep  them  in  a  proper 
degree  of  moisture.  If  properly  prepared,  they  will  be  found  much 
superior  to  equal  qnaaiilies  of  raw  barn  dung;  and  if  proper  pains  be 
taken  very  considerable  quantities  of  them  may  be  made  every  year. 

An  excellent  method  of  making  a  large  quantity  of  manure  vith 
little  trouble,  is  as  follows:  In  the  spring  enclose  a  piece  of  ground, 
say  ten  rotls  long  and  two  wide :  Have  the  two  end  feuces  so  that 
they  can  he  speedily  removed  at  pleasure,  to  plough  the  ground  more 
easily.  After  ploughing  it  wiih  a  cleft  furrow,  turn  the  milch  cows 
and  other  young  cattle  upon  it  every  night.  After  they  have  satu- 
rated the  surface,  plough  it  with  a  gathering  furrow;  and  so  on  alter- 
nately, at  intervals,  until  the  ground  is  completely  saturated  with 
their  stale  and  dung.  Then  cart  it  off,  and  apply  it  as  before  directed 
for  composts. 

•  By  first  carting  earth  and  rubbish  into  the  barn-yartl,  the  same  pro- 
cess of  making  manure  may  be  carried  on  there;  but  this  requires  an 
additional  carting,  which  greatly  enhances  the  expense.  It  is  usually 
better  to  make  these  yards  in  suitable  places,  and  drive  the  cattle 
into  them  after  the  cows  are  milked.  They  may  be  made  in  the  field 
intended  to  be  manured.  Sheep,  however,  should  never  be  shut  up 
in  thi?  manner,  as  it  will  be  found  more  hurtful  to  them  than  the  ad- 
vantage gained  by  their  manure  is  worth.  Perhaps  the  same  may  be 
observed  of  horses.  Let  a  slight  shed  be  made  in  a  sheep  pasture, 
and  under  this  cart  a  layer  of  sand  or  other  earth  :  the  sheep  will  re- 
sort to  this  for  shade  if  it  be  the  only  one  in  the  fieUl.  As  they  satu- 
rate the  earth  thus  carted  in,  bring  iu  more  and  spread  it  over  the 
other;  as  this  becomes  also  saturated,  let  more  be  brought  iu,  until 
the  mass  is  raised  so  high  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  cart  it  olf  to 
manure  the  soil,  as  before  directed.  The  same  process  may  be  car- 
ried on  in  the  sheep-pen,  during  winter,  to  nearly  equal  advantage. 
The  earth  becomes  in  this  way  so  fully  saturated  with  the  uriue  and 
excrements  that  it  becomes  very  good  manure  :  for  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  stale  of  cattle,  and  generally  all  urinary  matter, 
possesses  very  fertilizinsj  qualities,  and  should  n-.-ver  be  suflored  to  be 
lost  for  want  of  something  to  absorb  it.     Human  urine  is,  however, 

18 


138  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

much  superior  as  a  manure  to  that  of  brutes,  and  is  excellent  for  gTa«^ 
when  sprinkled  over  it.  The  stale  and  manure  of  horses  and  other 
cattle,  might  in  part  be  saved  during  the  warm  summer  days  in  th« 
manner  above  directed  for  sheep. 

The  reader  will  find  the  most  efifectual  and  complete  method  of 
making  the  most  of  the  manure  which  is  usually  lost  in  summer,  un- 
der article  Soiling. 

The  method  recommended  some  years  since  by  the  Society  of  Im- 
provers in  Scotland,  for  making  use  of  the  ridges  which  are  apt  to  ga- 
ther along  side  of  the  fences  in  fields  which  have  been  long  ploughed, 
Bhall  be  here  noticed.  First  plough  the  ridge  deep  with  a  clfitving 
furrow,  then  cart  on  a  layer  of  stiff  clay,  then  a  layer  of  barn  (iuiig, 
then  another  of  clay,  and  on  the  top  of  the  whole  a  layer  of  lime,  and 
cover  the  whole  over  with  ploughed'  earth  from  each  side,  and  let  it 
lie  a  spelk  After  a  while  enter  it  with  a  deep  cleaving  furrow,  and  m 
this  way  plough  it  to  the  bottom ;  then  go  over  it  again  with  gathering 
furrows,  until  the  whole  is  thrown  up  in  a  high  ridge,  and  in  this  situ- 
ation let  it  again  lie  to  ferment.  Repeat  this  |)rocess  of  cleaving, 
down  and  ridging  up,  at  proper  intervals,  until  the  whole  mass  is  well- 
mixed  and  fermented,  and  then  cart  it  out  as  a  compost  manure  for 
the  soil,  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  loads  to  the  acre. 

The  farmer  may  easily  follow  the  directions  here  given,  or  he  may 
rary  from  them  in  regard  to  the  component  parts,  so  as  to  fit  the  com- 
post for  the  soil  for  which  he  intends  it ;  and  no  doubt  in  many  in- 
stances it  may  be  done  to  great  advantage. 

Mr.  Davy,  in  his  Memoir  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in  England, 
after  mentioning  the  different  results  of  analyzed  earths  which  were 
found  extremely  fertile,  observes,  that  "  in  supplying  animal  or  vege- 
table manure  a  temporary  food  is  only  provided  for  plants,  which  is 
in  all  cases  exhausted  by  means  of  a  certain  number  of  crops;  but 
when  a  soil  is  rendered  of  the  best  possible  constitution  and  texture 
with  regard  to  its  earthy  parts,  its  fertility  may  be  considered  as  per- 
manently established.  It  becomes  capable  of  attracting  a  large  por- 
tion of  vegetable  nourishment  from  the  atmos[)here,  and  of  producing 
its  crops  with  comparatively  little  labor  and  expense.  See  further,  ar- 
ticle Earths. 

When  manures  of  the  common  kinds  are  to  be  applied,  let  them  be 
laid  on  pretty  plentifully,  and  generally  for  that  crop  which  needs 
them  most.  They  should  be  applied  evenly  to  the  soil.  It  is  but 
too  common  to  see  dung  scattered  thickly  round  where  the  heaps 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  S39 

were  laid  in  carting  out,  while  the  ground  farther  oEFhas  little  or  none 
on  ,•  but  this  is  miserable  management.  All  kinds  of  dung,  in  com- 
posts or  otherwise,  shouW  be  mixed  with  tl>e  soil  as  soon  after  cartiag 
out  as  possible,  as  they  lose  mi>ch  by  drying  and  evaporation. 

It  should,  however,  be  remembered,  that  soils  may  he  overcharged 
with  composts  or  raw  barn  tUing.  Too  much  of  even  composts  in  s, 
sandy  soil  tends  to  overheat  it,  and  thus  lessen  instead  of  increasing 
its  moisture ;  and  too  much  in  clays  tends  to  produce  too  rank  a 
growth.  Raw  barn  tlnog  may,  however,  be  buried  plentifully  in 
«lays,  where  its  fermentation  will  be  so  slow  as  not  to  produce  too 
great  degree  of  fertility.  In  sand,  however,  it  is  otherwise.  Com- 
posts, or  raw  barn  dung,  is  much  more  efiBcacious  to  the  growing 
plants  when  laid  in  the  drills  where  they  are  planted  than  when  mix- 
ed generally  with  the  soil ;  but  as  this  requires  muefa  more  labor  and 
expense,  and  as  the  ground  becomes  hardened  by  carting  on  the  ma- 
aure,  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  thing  is,  in  general,  gained  by  the 
practice, 

MAPLE,     See  article  Sycamore. 

MARES.  Those  which  are  kept  for  breeding  are  only  here  to  be 
noticed. 

Mares  should  not  be  suffered  to  breed  till  after  they  are  four  years 
old.  They  should  be  free  from  distempers,  lest  their  colts  inherit 
them.  They  should  be  of  good  colour  and  size,  well  made,  strong 
and  spirited,  with  bright  prominent  eyes.  If  the  mare  have  any  de- 
fects, don't  put  her  to  a  horse  having  the  same.  Alwut  the  first  of 
June  is  the  proper  time  to  put  her  to  horse,  and  every  ninth  day  af- 
terwards till  she  refuses  to  take  him. 

iNIares  with  foal  should  be  housed  pretty  early  in  the  fall,  and  be 
well  kept  till  foaling.  They  should  not  be  ridden  swiftly,  nor  put  to 
drawing  or  earrj'ing  burdens,  for  a  month  or  two  before  foaling.  The 
smell  of  a  hide  newly  taken  off  will  make  a  mare  lose  her  foal.  When 
about  to  foal  they  should  be  kept  in  a  yard  by  themselves. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  have  the  breeding  mares  cast  their  colts  after 
the  likeness  of  the  horse,  as  in  that  case  their  own  form  and  qualities 
are  not  so  essential.  They  should  also  give  plenty  of  milk,  in  order 
that  the  colts  have  a  good  first  summer's  growth.  A  further  and  very 
essential  requisite  is,  that  they  should  be  sure  in  being  got  with  foal 
every  year,  in  order  that  the  owner  may  not  be  disappointed  in  his 
expectations  of  profit. 

Good  breeding  mares  are  profitable ;  but  those  not  possessing  the 


140  far:\ier'S  assistant. 

above  qualities  had  better  he  kept  for  some  other  use.  Pastur-e* 
which  are  wet,  and  hear  coarse  grasses,  are  usually  applied  with  more 
advantage  to  keeping  breeding  mares  than  to  any  other  purpose. 

DIARLE.     See  article  Mam  res. 

MEADOWS.  All  mowing  lands  are  properly  meadows;  but 
when  we  speak  of  these  in  general,  we  mean  low  moist  grounds, 
■which  in  their  natural  state  are  best  fitted  for  the  production  of 
grass. 

Many  pieces  of  land  of  this  description  Avhich  bear  nothing  but 
coarse  wild  grass,  might  he  made  the  best  of  lands  b}'  hollo\\-<lraining 
and  manuring  with  sand  or  other  proper  manure.  This  will  render 
them  fit  for  the  plough,  and  well  suited  for  the  |)roduction  of  the  larg- 
est crops  of  grass.  Three  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre,  beside  fall  [)astur- 
ing,  or  perhaps  a  second  crop,  may  be  had  from  such  pieces  of  land 
after  being  thus  improved.  Such  land  would  then  be  worth  two  hun- 
dred dollars  an  acre,  while  perhaps  in  its  natural  state  it  would  not  be 
worth  thirty.  Farmers  should  study  their  own  ease,  |)leasure  and  pro- 
fit, l)y  fitting  a  small  piece  of  meadow  so  as  to  yield  them  a  sufficien- 
cy of  hay.  An  acre,  at  two  mowings,  can  be  made  to  yield  four  tons 
of  hay,  and  at  this  rate  ten  acres  would  yield  sulficient  for  a  hundrei) 
acre  farm.  The  greater  ease,  and  saving  of  expense,  in  gathering 
forty  tons  of  hay  from  ten  acres  of  fine  smooth  meadow,  instead  of  per- 
haps twenty-five  acres  of  rough  meadow,  ought  of  itself  to  be  a  suffi- 
cient inducement  for  the  farmer  to  improve  a  part  of  his  meadows,  so 
as  to  answer  in  place  of  the  whole. 

Meadows  may  be  |>a3tured  in  the  fall  without  much  injury,  but  not 
.closely.  The  after-growf h  of  grass  should  never  be  too  shortly  eaten, 
but  a  part  should  \^e  left  to  cover  Ihe  roots  during  winter.  Good  mea- 
dows are  often,  spoiled  by  close  feeding  in  the  fall ;  and  in  addition  to 
this  many  farmers  practice  feeding  them  in  the  spring,  until  such  time 
as  the  upland  pastures  have  grown.  By  this  means  the  meadow  is 
poached,  and  the  roots  of  the  grass  torn  to  pieces,  in  such  manner 
that  not  more  than  one  half  of  the  crop  is  to  be  expected  that  might 
be  obtained  by  pasturing  moderately  in  the  fall  and  none  in  the 
spring.  By  this  bad  management,  too,  all  the  best  grasses  are  eaten 
out,  as  cattle  will  eat  these  Ihe  closest;  or  being  more  tender,  they 
are  destroyed  by  the  feet  of  the  cattle ;  an<l  in  the  mean  time  the  wild 
grasses  usurp  their  places,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  meadow. 

Where  a  meadow  is  (|uile  wild  it  should  be  mowed  rather  before 
the  grass  has  attained  its  full  tiize,  and  in  this  way  it  may  yield  a  tOr 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  141 

lerable  good  second  crop ;  while  each  crop,  by  being  mowed  while 
verj  green,  and  by  adding  a  peck  of  salt  to  every  ton,  may  be  con- 
verted into  good  fodder.  IJy  mowing  wet  meadows  very  early,  the 
grass  may  be  out  of  the  way  before  the  heavy  rains  which  often  fall 
in  the  month  of  July.  Meadows  which  are  entirely  of  wild  grass  are 
much  less  liable  to  be  injured  by  close  pasturing  and  the  treading  of 
cattle  than  any  other;  the  treading  of  such  grass  will  not  essentially 
injure  it,  and  cattle  are  never  disposed  to  eat  it  very  closely. 

For  destroying  moss  in  meadows,  see  article  Moss. 

MELO^J.  Seeds  brought  from  the  southward  produce  the  best 
melons,  and  the  seeds  should  occasionally  be  renewed  by  a  fresh  sup- 
ply from  that  quarter.  Blr.  Miller  says  they  should  be  three  years 
old  before  planting,  and  that  those  which  will  swim  in  water  should 
be  rejected.  The  ends  of  the  runners,  and  the  fruit  last  formed,  says 
Mr.  Deane,  should  be  taken  off,  in  order  that  the  fruit  first  formed 
may  have  more  nourishment,  grow  larger,  and  arrive  to  greater  per- 
fection. 

A  sandy  loam,  with  a  southern  exposure,  is  best  for  melons.  A 
good  manure  to  be  put  under  them  when  planting,  is  an  old  compost 
made  of  good  loam  and  the  dung  of  neat  cattle  or  swine.  The  Can- 
leloupe  is  the  finest  tasted  melon. 

METHEGLIN.  A  hundred  pounds  of  honey  is  generally  used  to 
make  a  barrel  of  this  liquor,  but  Mr.  Deane  says  he  found  ninety 
pounds  to  answer  very  well.  It  improves  considerably  by  age,  and 
becomes  as  strong  as  common  wines.  The  liquor  is  made  thus  : 
Take  of  honey  and  clear  Avater,  in  the  proportions  above  mentioned, 
and  boil  them  for  an  hour;  when  the  liquor  is  cool  barrel  it,  adding 
£ome  ginger,  cloves  and  mace,  though  it  will  answer  tolerably  well 
without  these.  Some  yeast  must  be  put  in  the  cask  to  ferment  it. 
Let  it  have  a  little  vent  while  fermenting,  but  close  the  vent  as  soon 
as  most  of  the  fermentation  is  over.  It  will  be  improved  by  being 
bottled  after  five  or  six  months. 

MILDEW.  Mr.  Young  says  that  when  the  wheat-stem  has  a  par- 
ticular cast  of  a  bluish  green,  it  is  then  affected  with  mildew. 

Mr.  Marshal  directs  that  as  soon  as  wheat  is  discovered  to  be  struck 
with  mildew  it  should  be  cut,  and  that  this  serves  to  prevent  the  ef- 
fects of  the  mildew ;  that  wheat  may  be  thus  cut  three  weeks  before 
the  usual  time  of  harvesting. 

The  grain  in  this  case  will  be  smaller  than  usual,  but  will  make 
much  better  flour,  and  the  quantity  will  be  greater,  as  the  skin  will 


142  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

then  be  found  very  thin.  If  the  grain  has  attained  its  full  size,  though 
only  in  the  milk,  it  is  sufficient ;  it  receives  that  nourishmeut  Irooj 
the  stalk  which  serves  to  mature  it.  The  green  stalks  of  the  wheat 
must  be  sufficiently  dried  before  slacking,  and  when  carted  in  they 
will  be  found  bright  and  clear  of  the  mildew,  and  will  make  good 
fodder. 

Mildew  is  probably  owing  to  a  revulsion  of  the  sap  in  the  stalks  of 
the  wheat,  occasioned  by  cool  niglUs,  when  the  atmosphere  has  be- 
come cooler  than  the  earth,  which  in  that  case  forces  the  juices  up- 
ward too  fast,  and  thus  bursts  open  the  stalks;  as  they  are  perhaps 
more  easily  split  than  those  of  any  other  plant  whatever.  The  know- 
ledge of  this,  however,  points  to  no  practicable  preventive  of  mil- 
dew; all  that  can  be  done  is  to  counteract  its  effects,  as  above  di- 
rected. 

MILLET;  (Paniann.)  The  stalks  and  leaves  of  this  plant  re- 
semble those  of  Indidu  corn,  though  much  smaller.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  about  three  and  four  feet.  A  sandy  soil  suits  it  best,  and  it 
ehould  be  sown  in  drills,  about  three  feet  apart.  The  plants  should 
stand  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows  after  hoeing.  It  will  pro- 
duce as  large  crops  as  Indian  corn,  and  bears  drought  admirably  well. 
A  crop  of  it  so^^Ti  thick,  and  mowed  green,  is  excellent  fodder. 

"  This  grain,  (says  Mr.  Deane)  is  a  good  food  for  fowls  and  swine  ; 
for  the  latter  it  should  be  ground  into  meal.  Some  mix  it  with  flour 
in  bread,  but  it  is  better  for  puddings." 

MOSS ;  (Lichen.)  There  are  various  kinds  of  this;  some  grows  on 
trees,  on  stones,  on  the  shingled  roofs  of  houses,  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground ;  and  some  of  a  very  minute  kind,  which  is  commonly  called 
jnoutd,  on  the  surface  and  in  the  crevices  and  cavities  of  almost  every 
substance  which  is  w  et  or  moist. 

Moss  is  particularly  injurious  to  the  growth  of  trees  and  of  grass. 
Its  growth  is  encouraged  on  fruit  trees,  where  the  soil  is  either  too 
cold  and  wet,  too  sterile  and  dry,  or  too  thickly  planted.  Where  the 
soil  is  too  cold  and  wet,  the  best  remedy  is  hollow-draining,  and  nia- 
Huring  with  sand,  sheep  dung,  and  other  manures  suitable  to  the  soil. 
Where  it  is  too  sterile  and  dry,  dig  away  the  earth  from  about  the 
roots,  and  supply  its  place  with  a  mixture  of  earth  and  mud  from 
ponds  or  creeks,  or  some  other  rich  earth,  that  is  better  calculated 
to  retain  moisture.  Where  the  trees  stand  too  thick,  cut  part  of 
them  away,  rub  the  moss  otf  the  rest,  and  apply  Forsyth's  method 
of  heading  don-n  if  necessary,  making  use  of  his  composition  to  pre- 
serve the  wood.     See  article  Frvit  Trf.e«5. 


FARiMER'S  ASSISTANT.  143 

Where  moss  prevails  in  grass  ground,  apply  a  heavy  sharp  iron- 
toothed  harrow  to  it,  scarify  the  top  of  the  soil  till  it  is  somewhat  raw, 
strew  some  seeds  of  herdsgrass,  or  other  good  grass,  over  it,  and  give 
it  a  good  dressing  of  a  mixture  of  sheep  dung  and  sand,  or  other  warm 
manure  that  is  suitable  to  a  cold  soil.  This  is  for  grounds  sufficiently 
dry  ;  but  if  the  moss  be  occasioned  by  too  much  wetness  in  the  soil, 
although  the  above  method  may  prove  beneficial  for  a  while,  yet 
nothing  short  of  hollow-draining  will  ever  prove  eflfectual  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of  time. 

By  experiments,  says  Mr.  Deane,  it  is  found  that  the  common  yel- 
low moss  is  a  good  manure  for  potatoes.  It  would  seem  to  be  best, 
however,  when  mixed  with  stable  duog,  or  rather  laid  on  top  of  it. 
It  is  said  to  be  very  good  to  mix  with  lime  in  composts,  as  the  lime 
is  best  calculated  to  dissolve  the  oil  which  it  contains  j  and  oil  is 
known  to  be  an  ingredient  in  the  food  of  plants.  It  is  also  recom- 
mended to  be  mixed  in  dry  sandy  or  gravelly  soils,  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  such  to  retain  a  due  degree  of  moisture. 

MOWING.  This  being  a  laborious  employment,  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary for  the  mower  to  husband  his  strength  to  the  best  advantage. 
For  this  purpose,  the  first  requisite  is  to  have  a  good  scythe,  of  proper 
length,  if  the  mowing  ground  be  not  too  rough,  well  hung  on  a  light 
stiff  snead,  so  that  the  scythe  will  not  tremble  as  it  goes  through  the 
grass,  having  the  edge  of  the  scythe  to  face  the  nib  which  is  held  in 
the  left  hand,  and  to  keep  it  well  ground  and  well  whetted.  As 
much  art  is  requisite  in  keeping  a  scythe  in  the  best  order,  as  there  is 
in  learning  to  mow  well. 

The  sneads  most  commonly  used  are  bent  in  a  twisted  shape ;  but 
some  use  a  snead  which  is  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  half  circle,  and 
the  latter  are  always  preferred  by  those  who  have  become  used  to 
them.  They  take  a  wider  swarth  with  the  same  extension  of  the 
arms;  a  larger  cut,  and  therefore  may  be  slower;  require  less  stoop 
ing;  and  from  the  position  of  the  body  which  is  requisite  to  enter  tht 
point  of  the  scythe  into  the  grass,  being  more  twisted  rouml  to  the 
right,  requires  little  more  than  bringing  the  body  to  its  natural  pes 
ture  to  carry  the  scythe  through. 

Mowers  should  always  be  at  their  work  betimes  in  the  morning,  s(y 
as  to  have  half  their  days's  work  performed  before  the  heat  of  the 
day;  and  then  they  can  afford  themselves  a  resting  spell  during  the 
most  sultry  hours.  By  this  means,  too.  the  mowed  grass  has  a  longer 
time  for  drying  during  the  day. 


144  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Where  mowins  grounds  or  meadows  are  of  perfectly  smooth  surface, 
as  they  ought  always  to  be,  particular  pains  shouhl  always  be  taken 
in  mowing  to  cut  the  grass  as  close  to  the  ground  and  as  evenly  as 
possible.  Mr.  Young  remark:?,  that  grass  will  never  thrive  well  that 
is  not  mown  quite  close;  and  the  loss  in  the  crop  where  this  is  not 
done  is  very  considerable,  "  as  one  inch  at  the  bottom  weighs  more 
than  several  at  the  top.*' 

MO^^■IXG  GROUND.  We  generally  apply  this  term  to  arable 
lands  that  are  laid  down  to  grass.  But  little  is  necessary  to  be  said 
under  this  hea«l  further  than  what  has  been  said  under  articles 
Grasses  and  Mf.adows.  This  may,  however,  be  observed  of  all 
grasses  which  are  not  biennial,  that  where  the  ground  becomes  Ixtuud 
it  is  good  husbandry  to  tear  it  well  with  a  sharp  iron-toothed  harrow 
before  manuring,  and  in  this  way  to  mix  the  manure  with  the  soil  as 
much  as  possible,  particularly  if  the  strength  of  the  manure  be  such  as 
is  calculated  to  evaporate  by  drying  and  exposure  to  the  air.  It  may 
also  be  further  observed,  that  it  is  a  waste  of  money  to  lay  down  to 
grass  lands  which  are  exhausted  by  severe  cropping,  unless  they  are 
of  such  nature  as  can  be  recruited  by  gypsum,  or  some  other  similar 
top-dressing.  Generallj',  if  lands  be  poor,  and  cannot  be  assisted  by 
gypsum,  they  ought  to  be  recruited  while  under  the  plough,  not  while 
under  grass. 

Ground  that  is  full  of  small  stones  may  be  fitted  tolerably  well  for 
mowing  b\'  i)assing  a  roller  over  it  after  sowing;  but  the  better  way 
is,  to  gather  the  stones  into  small  heaps  and  carry  them  off,  anil  thej- 
will  then  be  of  no  further  trouble  in  future  crops.  It  is  ahnost  unne- 
cessary to  add,  that  all  erass  grounds  should  be  laid  down  smoothly, 
hy  being  well  harrowed  after  sowing. 

MUD.     See  article  Manures. 

MULBERRY  :  (Morus.)  This  tree  is  well  worth  raising,  not 
only  for  its  fruit,  and  great  use  in  feeding  silk  worms,  but  also  lor  its 
timber  and  for  fuel,  as  it  grows  very  ra|)idly,  and  is  generally  well 
adapted  to  our  climate.  It  grows  well  in  a  deep  dry  soil  that  is  mo- 
derately rich.  It  may  be  raised  from  the  seeds,  or  by  cuttings  or 
slips.     See  further,  articles  Hedges  and  Silk  Worms. 

MUSTARD  ;  (Sinapis.)  This  plant  requires  a  soil  sufficiently 
strong  for  turnips.  Let  the  ground  be  well  prejinred,  by  ploughings 
and  harrowine?  early  in  the  spring,  and  sow,  of  well  ripened  seed,  at 
the  rate  of  two  quarts  to  the  acre.  When  the  plants  are  a  few  inches 
High,  thio  them  so  as  to  stand  about  ten  inches  apart,  and  destroy  the 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  14a 

weeds  with  the  hoe.  When  the  lower  seeds  are  ripe-,  the  middle  seeds 
green,  and  the  top  of  the  plants  in  blossom,  cut  them  with  a  sickle, 
bind  them  in  moderate  sized  sheaves,  and  put  these  in  small  stacks 
for  a  few  days.  In  this  situation  the  green  seed  will  soon  ripen.  Carry 
the  sheaves  to  the  barn,  having  a  targe  cloth  under  them,  to  prevent 
wasting,  and  in  a  fewdnys  they  will  be  fit  for  threshing. 

The  ground  for  raising  this  plant  should  be  previously  well  cleared 
of  weeds. 


N. 


NEAT  CATTLE.  All  tame  animals  which  are  fed  in  pastures, 
are  properly  cattle ;  but  to  distinguish  the  cow-kind  from  others,  they 
are  usually  called  neat  cattle. 

Of  these  are  various  breeds,  which  appear  to  be  original  and  dis- 
tinct, though  perhaps  climates  and  soils  may  have  done  something  in 
producing  these  varieties.  The  most  obvious  of  these  is  the  Galloway^ 
or  polled  hreef],  as  they  are  called  in  Great-Britain,  or  the  cattle  with- 
out horns.  Other  breeds  in  that  country,  where,  perhaps,  the  greatest 
variety  is  to  be  found,  may  be  well  worthy  of  notice. 

1.  The  original  or  wild  race  of  that  country.  Colour  invariably 
white;  horns  tipped  with  black;  end  of  the  ears,  inside  and  out- 
side, reddish  ;  black  muzzles;  flesh  fine  and  well  tasted. 

2.  The  Devonshire  6rea/,said  to  be  in  part  descended  from  the  above 
race;  colour,  light  red,  with  a  light  dun  ring  round  the  eye; 
thin  face;  thin  skin;  hips  wide;  tail  quite  low;  rather  small 
boned  ;  horns  turning  upward ;  the  cows  yield  good  rich  milk  ; 
oxen  good  for  draught  and  fatten  early. 

3.  Dutch,  or  short  horned  breed  ;  hide  thin  ;  horns  short;  tails  set 
high;  colour,  red  and  white  nearly  mixed  ;  tender  constitutions; 
fatten  kindly,  and  yield  large  quantities  both  of  milk  and  tallow. 

4.  Lancashire  breed,  with  straiter  horns  than  those  of  any  other, 
spreading  widely  and  extending  forward  :  lars'*  and  square  built ; 

19 


146  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

fore-r(uarter3  deep;    milk   not  aliiindant  but  rich;    the   animal 
hard}'.     From  an  intermixture  of  this  breed  with  others.  IMr. 
Bakewell  ol)tained  his  Dishlcy  breed,  which  are  remarkable  lor 
fatting  very  easily   and  u|)on  the  most  valuable  parts;  though 
they  yield  but  little  milk  or  tallow,  when  compared  with  some 
others. 
Considerable  pains  have  been  taken  to  introduce  bulls  of  thi^,  or 
similar  breeds,  into  this  state,  without  any  apparent  knowledge  of  the 
uses  to  which  the  calves  from  such  bulls  were  to  be  applied.   It  should 
have  been  understood,  that  such  breeds  are  not  so  well  fitted  for  milch 
cows  as  for  fatting  cattle,  and  in  England  are  raised  for  that  purpose. 
5.  Hisihland  brcctf,  or  Kylocs,  with  horns  turned  upwards;  colours, 
various,  chielly  black,  though  sometimes  brindled  or  dun;  hair 
long  and  close;  bodies  well  sha|)ed  ;  best  suited  for  cold  moun- 
tainous countries  ;  good  for  milk,  and  kind  to  fatten. 
0.  Polled  breed,   before  mentioned ;   shaped  like  the  Devonshire 
breed,  though  rather  shorter;  hides  moderately  thick;  hardy, 
and  fatten  kindly  on  the  best  parts;  flesh  good,  and  well  mixed 
with  fat ;  oxen  good  for  draft.     A  variety  of  this  breed  of  cows 
called  the  Suffolk  duns,  are  excellent  for  the  dairy.     These  are 
small,  lean,  big-bellied,  and  of  a  dun  colour. 

7.  Aldcrnai/,  or  French  breed;  suvdU,  light  red;  smooth  neat  horns ; 
tender  constitutions ;  rich  milkers:  flesh  good. 

8.  Welsh  breed,  chiefly  black ;  small,  with  horns  thick,  and  turning 
upward  ;  well  shaped  ;  vigorous,  and  well  calculated  for  labor. 

Our  cattle  mostly  resemble  those  of  the  Devonshire,  but  evidently 
we  have  mixtures  of  various  breeds;  so  much  so,  that  no  specific  cha- 
racters can  be  given  them.  We  have  also  the  polled  breed  distinct 
by  itself;  though  sometimes  they  are  found  mixed  with  others. 

Mr.  Livingston  observes,  that  black  cattle  are  uncommon  in 
France,  but  almost  universal  in  South  Holland  and  Brabanl ;  that 
the  butter  made  in  the  latter  countries  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  the 
former;  and  hence  he  concludes,  tliat  the  butter  of  black  cattle  is  in- 
ferior to  that  made  from  cows  of  lighter  colours,  which  is  agreeable 
to  the  common  received  0])iuion. 

"  A  perfect  cow,"  says  the  compiler  of  "  The  Complete  Grazier^^ 
"  should  have  a  broad  smooth  forehead  ;  black  eyes ;  large  clean 
horns;  thick  skin ;  large  deep  body  ;  strong  muscular  thighs;  large 
white  udder,  {yellow  is  better,)  with  four  long  elastic  teals,  together 
with  every  other  token  requisite  in  a  bull,  allowing  for  the  ditference 


far:mer's  assistant.  m 

of  sex.  They  should  also  be  young;  for  milch  kine  are  not  good  for 
breeding  after  they  are  twelve;  though  they  will  often  live  much 
longer  if  kept  well  and  free  from  diseases." 

Heifers  generally  arrive  at  the  age  of  puberty  when  they  are 
eighteen  months ;  though  instances  have  occured  where  they  have 
brought  forth  calves  before  that  time.  The  better  they  are  kept  the 
sooner  Ihey  will  breed.  If,  however,  they  breed  so  early,  they 
should  be  highly  kept ;  for  otherwise,  they  will  be  apt  to  be  stinted 
in  their  subsequent  growth.  3Ir.  Bakewell  used  to  keep  his  Dishly 
breed  of  heifers  from  the  bull  until  the  age  of  three ;  but  Sir  John 
Sinclair  attributes  to  this  their  often  missing  being  with  calf.  It  is 
believed  to  be  best  to  follow  nature's  law — let  them  go  to  the  bull  as 
soon  as  they  feel  the  inclination. 

Breeds  of  cattle  are  usually  much  improved  by  crossing  or  mixing 
difierent  kinds  together;  and  it  also  seems  essential,  that  there  should 
be  no  pro-creation  between  animals  which  are  nearly  related.  Let 
there  be  little  or  no  consanguinity  between  the  bull  and  the  cow 
A\  Inch  is  put  to  him.  This  seems  to  be  agreeable  to  the  laws  of  na- 
ture, and  among  men,  is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  degeneracy  of 
the  race  where  the  peasantry  of  some  small  secluded  districts  constant- 
ly intermarry  with  relatives;  or  where  the  pride  of  families  has  serv- 
ed to  preclude  a  due  intermixture  with  others. 

But  i:i  the  best  breeds  of  all  animals,  some  of  their  young  will  al- 
ways be  found  more  promising  than  others;  among  cattle,  therefore,' 
where  a  selection  is  (o  be  made,  pains  should  be  constantly  taken  to 
select  the  most  promising  for  raising,  provided  they  are  brought  forth 
in  the  projjer  season  ;  and  this  for  calves  should  be  early  in  the  spring. 
Those  brought  forth  late  will  not  so  well  endure  the  succeeding  win- 
ter ;  and,  if  heifers,  will  usually  go  to  the  third  year,  before  they  are 
w  ilh  calf,  while  those  which  were  earlier  calved,  will  usually  bring 
forth  a  year  sooner. 

In  the  selection  and  improvement  of  breeds  of  cattle,  a  due  regard 
is  to  be  had  to  the  uses  for  which  they  are  intended.  Thus,  if  the 
best  milch  cows  are  desired,  select  from  the  breeds  of  those  which 
are  known  to  be  the  best  for  that  use  ;  that  is,  admitting  the  size  to 
be  equal  ;  those  which  yield  the  most  of  such  cream  as  makes  the  best 
butter  in  any  one  year,  are  generally  to  be  preferred.  This  is  to  be 
ascertained  by  keeping  the  milk  of  different  cows  separate,  an«!  then 
the  quantify  and  quality  of  their  products  can  be  easily  determined. 
The  size  of  cows  is  not  so  material ;  as,  it  is  found  that  all  cattle  eat 


148  FARMER^S  ASSISTANT. 

nearly  in  proportion  to  their  respective  sizes:  What  wouhl  he  neces- 
sary to  feed  one  of  the  large  Lancashire  hreed  of  cows  would  be  near- 
ly sufficient  for  two  of  the  Alderney  breed,  before  mentioned ;  while 
the  milk  of  the  two  latter,  would,  probably,  nearly  double  that  of  the 
former  There  is  hardly  any  breed  of  neat  cattle  but  what  are  sufh- 
ciently  large  for  milch  cows,  if  well  kept;  for  it  should  be  remember- 
ed, that  all  cattle  will  grow  much  larger,  if  well  kept,  than  if  kept 
poorly,  during  the  winter  season  particularly. 

In  Great-Britain,  much  pains  have  been  taken  to  select  breeds 
which  should  unite  the  two  most  valuable  qualities,  of  being  the  best 
for  milking,  and  the  kindest  to  fatten  ;  but  hitherto  such  breed  is  said 
not  to  have  been  found.  Sir  John  Sinclair,  however,  observes,  "  It 
is  probable,  that  by  great  attention  a  breed  might  be  reared,  the  males 
of  which  might  be  well  calculated  for  the  shambles,  and  the  females 
produce  abundance  of  milk,  and  yet  when  they  reached  eight  or  nine 
years  might  be  easily  fattened."  He  further  adds,  that  some  of  the 
English  and  Scottish  breeds  have  nearly  reached  this  point  of  per- 
fection. 

If  the  object  of  the  farmer  or  grazier  be  merely  to  raise  cattle  for 
fatting,  then,  perhaps,  some  of  the  larger  breeds  may  sometimes  be 
best.  In  large  towns  particularly,  a  piece  of  a  mammoth  ox,  when 
highly  fatted,  seems  m.ore  desirable,  and  will  usually  commaud  a  great- 
er |»rice,  than  an  equal  weight  of  equally  good  beef  of  a  small  animal. 
The  Dishly  breed,  before  mentioned,  are  highly  esteemed  in  Great- 
Britain  for  this  purpose.  The  most  essential  points,  however,  in  a 
breed  for  fatting  cattle  are,  that  they  grow  rapidly,  in  order  that  they 
may  soon  attain  their  full  size;  that  they  are  of  comely  shape,  (or  this 
will  usually  enhance  their  price  with  the  butcher ;  that  they  keep 
easily  and  fatten  kindly,  and  on  the  best  parts,  as  the  English  graziers 
say ;  and  that  their  beef  be  tender,  sweet  flavored,  and  well  mixed 
ivith  fat. 

In  this  country  but  little  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  raising  cattle 
which  are  only  intended  for  fatting.  Our  working  oxen  are  usually 
bought  up  at  the  age  of  seven  or  eight  years  for  the  purpose.  For 
the  best  breed  of  working  oxen,  therefore,  due  attention  should  be  had 
as  well  to  their  possessing  the  foregoing  requisites  for  good  fatting 
cattle,  as  to  their  being  strong,  hardy,  quickpaced,  and  good  for  the 
draft. 

The  signs  of  a  good  ox,  says  IMr.  Deane,  are,  thick,  soft,  smooth, 
short  hair;  short  thick  head:  glossy  smooth   horns;  large  shaggy 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  149 

ears;  wide  forehead;  full  black  eyes;  wide  nostrils;  black  lips; 
thiok  ne?h}  neck;  large  shoulders  ;  broatl  reins ;  large  belly  ;  thick 
runi))  and  thighs;  straight  back ;  long  tail,  well  covered  with  hair; 
and  short  broad  hoofs.  The  best  colors  are  brown,  dark  red,  and 
brindled. 

Young  steers  which  are  intended  for  labor  should  be  early  yoked 
and  taught  to  draw;  for  if  this  be  delayed  till  they  have  attained  con- 
siderable growth,  they  are  more  ditficult  to  break.  They  should  be 
moderately  worked  at  first  with  old  oxen,  till  they  have  acquired  suf- 
ficient strength,  and  become  enured  to  labor. 

If  yokes  be  used,  let  that  part  which  rubs  against  the  breast  ami 
neck  of  oxen  be  rubbed  with  tallow,  when  worked  much  in  wet 
weather,  to  prevent  soreness. 

When  an  ox  is  eight  years  old  he  should  be  turned  off  to  fatten; 
and  to  promote  his  fatting,  let  a  little  blood  be  then  taken  from  him. 
If  kept  longer  his  flesh  will  not  be  so  good. 

Lord  Kaimes  observes,  that  among  caltle,  the  strongest  rules  and 
claims  precedence  by  taking  the  lead;  that  if  the  strongest  ox  be  not 
therefore  first  unyoked  he  is  apt  to  be  unruly  while  his  fellow  is  letting 
loose. 

At  the  age  of  four  years,  all  neat  cattle  have  one  circular  ring  at 
the  root  of  their  horns,  and  one  additional  ring  yearly  thereafter. 
When,  however,  they  become  quite  old  these  rings  become  so  indis- 
tinct as  no  longer  to  be  separately  perceptible. 

For  the  bull,  the  finest  looking  calf,  possessing  as  nearly  as  can  be 
judged,  the  foregoing  requisites  for  a  good  ox,  should  be  selected,  and 
from  the  finest  of  the  breed  which  he  is  intended  to  propagate  ;  and 
he  should  not  be  suffered  to  go  to  a  cow  until  he  has  attained  a  good 
growth.  Suffering  young,  or  dwarfish,  or  ill  looking  bulls  to  go  to 
cows,  only  tends  to  degenerate  the  breed  ;  and,  in  the  two  former 
rases,  the  cow  by  being  served  with  such,  frequently  misses  having- 
a  calf. 

The  bull  should  have  good  keeping,  so  that  he  may  be  in  prime 
condition  when  he  is  put  to  cows.  When  he  is  about  eiaiht  years  old, 
if  he  grows  cross  and  mischievous,  he  should  be  castrated  and  turned 
off  to  fatten.  Bulls  may  be  broke  Avhile  young,  and  worked,  and  then 
Ihey  prove  much  less  refractory. 

In  regard  to  calves,  those  which  are  brought  forth  early,  are  best 
for  raising,  as  they  will  endure  the  first  winter  better  ;  and,  if  heifers, 
xf\\\  generally  be  with  calf  a  year  sooner  than  those  brought  forth  late 


150  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

The  most  promisinsj  calves  should  be  selected  for  rearinsr,  for  the  uses 
intended,  and  the  rest  fatted  and  killed.  In  fatting  such,  >Ir.  Deane 
advises,  that  they  be  taken  from  the  cow  the  next  day  after  they  are 
calved,  and  let  them  have  only  two  teats  of  the  cow  to  suck  during 
the  first  week,  three  during  the  second,  ami  all  during  the  third  and 
fourth;  and  in  this  wny,  he  says,  they  will  he  fatter  in  the  end  than 
if  they  had  all  at  first.  The  teats  which  are  not  given  them  should 
be  previously  milked. 

In  Holland,  calves  are  fatted  in  coop?  or  pens  made  for  the  purpose. 
These  are  merely  narrow  boxes  with  bottoms  of  lattice  work,  Just  so 
Tride  as  to  admit  the  calf  to  lie  down,  but  not  to  turn  roun<l,  and  suf- 
ficiently high  to  stand  up  in.  They  hold  but  one  calf  at  a  time,  which 
is  kept  in  darkness.  When  it  is  to  be  fed,  a  small  hole  is  opened  in 
front,  just  large  enough  to  put  its  head  through,  which  it  readily  does, 
being  attracted  by  the  light,  and  the  pail  of  milk  is  then  presented  to 
it  to  drink.  A  lump  of  chalk  is  also  hung  up  by  the  door  for  the  calf 
to  lick  at.  The  box  or  pen  is  to  be  kept  sweet  and  clean.  In  this 
way,  says  the  compiler  of  "  The  Complete  Grazier;'  they  fatten  much 
faster  than  in  any  other. 

AVhefher  calvts  are  kept  for  fatting,  or  for  rearing,  feeding  them 
three  times  a  day  is  much  preferable  to  feeding  them  only  twice ;  but 
whether  fed  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  the  times  of  feeding  should  be  re- 
gular, and  as  nearly  equi-distant  as  possible. 

Dark  coops  or  boxes,  something  similar  to  those  above  described, 
are  also  provided  by  some  of  those  who  make  a  business  of  fatting 
calves  for  market,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  large  towns  in  Fngland.  where 
they  are  treated  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  above  mentioned.  Fresh 
litter  is  constantly  provided  for  them  to  lie  on,  and  jiarticular  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  their  cleanliness.  The  use  of  the  chalk  is  lor  correct- 
ing the  acidi'y  of  their  stomachs.  Pains  are  also  there  taken  to  have 
oalves  brought  forth  at  different  times  during  winter  for  fatting,  as  the 
veal  then  commands  a  great  price.  They  are  kept  five  or  six  weeks 
before  they  are  killed  ;  and  a  little  before  killing,  an«l  also,  when 
about  four  weeks  old,  they  are  plentifully  bled  ;  taking  as  much  away 
as  they  can  well  bear,  which  is  usually  about  a  quart  at  each  time. 
The  principal  use  of  the  bleedings  is  to  give  a  superior  degree  of  white- 
ness to  the  veal.  Keeping  them  in  dark  places  tends  to  keep  them 
(]uiet,  so  that  they  do  not  fatigue  themselves  by  too  much  exercise. 
They  are  fatted  with  various  kinds  of  food  besiile  nilk,  as  that  is  in 
such  places  too  valuable  to  be  much  used.     The  most  commoo  ar- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  151 

tides  used  are  chopped  turnips  and  |)otatoes,  grains,  bran,  sweet  hay, 
Arc.  No  doubt,  a  little  flaxseed  broth,  mixed  with  hay  tea,  would  be 
an  excellent  addition. 

In  regard  to  the  best  food  for  rearing  of  calves,  the  method  pursued 
by  .Mr.  Crook,  as  mentioned  in  "  The  Letters  and  Papers  of  the  Bath 
ami  JFest  of  Endand  Society;'  deserves  to  be  mentioned.  la  1787, 
hepnrchased  three  sacks  of  linseed,  value  2/.  3^.  (equal  to  about  nine 
dollars,)  which  lasted  him  three  years.  One  quart  of  seed  was  boiled 
in  six  quarts  of  water  for  ten  minutes,  to  a  jelly,  which  was  given  the 
calves  three  times  a  day,  mixed  with  a  little  hay-tea.  Thus  he  was 
enabled  to  rear  in  178  7,  seventeen  calves ;  in  1788,  twenty-three; 
and  in  1789,  fifteen,  without  any  milk  at  all  :  And  he  states,  that  his 
calves  throve  much  better  than  those  of  his  neighbors  which  were  fed 
with  milk.  Thus,  it  seems,  that  less  than  eighteen  cents  worth  of 
flaxseed,  with  a  tritle  of  hay,  is  suflicient  for  one  calf.  Linseed-oil 
eakes,  when  pulverized  and  boiled,  make  an  equally  good  broth, 
or  jolly. 

The  above  is  nearly  similar  to  the  directions  of  Mr.  Clift  of  this 
state.  He  directs,  that  after  the  calf  lias  been  fed  for  a  fortnight  upon 
sweet  milk,  give  it  skim  milk,  mixed  with  an  equal  or  larger  quantity 
of  flaxseed  broth  or  jelly,  and  let  it  be  given  to  it  milk  warm.  Enough 
jell>  may  he  boiled  at  once  for  three  or  four  days  ;  but  if  the  weather 
be  warm,  it  will  spoil  by  souring.  With  this  drink,  xMr.  Clift  says, 
calves  will  thrive  as  well  as  if  fed  on  sweet  milk.  For  learning  a 
calf  to  drink  at  first,  the  best  method  is,  to  let  it  suck  your  finger  with 
its  nose  in  the  milk. 

3Ir.  Budd,  of  3Iassachuselts,  directs  to  take  the  calves  from  the 
rows  when  three  days  old.  and  feed  them  with  gruel  composed  of  one 
thiril  barley  and  two  thirds  oats,  each  ground  fine,  and  the  mixture 
gifted.  A  quart  of  this  gruel  is  to  be  given  to  each  calf  morning  and 
evening.  The  gruel  is  made  by  taking  one  quart  of  the  flour,  and 
t\velve  of  water,  and  boiling  them  together  for  half  an  hour,  and  is  to 
be  given  when  milk  warm.  In  about  ten  days  after  commencing  the 
feeding,  tie  up  and  suspend  a  bundle  of  sweet  hay  in  the  middle  of  the 
pen  where  the  calves  are  kept,  which  they  will  eat  by  degrees.  A 
little  of  the  flour  put  into  a  trough  for  them  to  lick,  is  also  of  service. 
Feed  them  till  two  mouths  old,  increasing  the  quantity  as  they  grow 
larser.  Half  a  bushel  of  the  above  mixture  is  suflicient  for  one^calf. 
The  communication  of  the  above  method,  obtained  for  Mr.  Budd  the 
prize  from  the  agricultural  society  of  Massacliusetts. 


152  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

When  calves  are  put  into  pasture,  it  should  he  such  as  i?  dry  and 
sweet.  White  clover  is  the  best  for  them  ;  red  clover  or  trefoil  is  also 
gooil.  Mr.  L'Honiinedieu  recommends,  that  there  be  no  water  in  the 
pasture,  but  sufficient  of  shade.  The  effect  of  this  is,  that  the  calves 
learn  to  feed  at  night,  or  when  the  dew  is  on.,  and  lie  by  in  the  day  ; 
and  as  grass  while  wet  with  dew  is  believed  to  be  most  nourishing, 
they  will,  in  this  way,  thrire  much  better  than  those  which  have  fret- 
access  to  water;  for  this,  it  is  contended  l»y  Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  tend? 
to  stunt  them  and  make  them  pot-bellied.  Probably  the  better  way 
is  to  give  them  a  little  nourishing  drink,  at  certain  times,  when  the 
dews  fail,  or  at  mid-day  when  the  weather  is  very  warm. 

When  the  weather  is  pleasant,  after  being  put  to  pasture,  the  males 
may  be  castrated  and  the  females  spayed,  if  they  are  designed  to  be 
raised  for  fatting. 

During  the  first  winter,  calves  should  be  kept  in  a  comfortable 
place,  and  have  plenty  of  good  fodder  and  a  little  Indian  meal,  or 
other  nourishing  food.  They  should  have  shelter  earlier  than  larger 
cattle,  as  they  cannot  so  well  endure  the  first  approach  of  cold 
weather. 

Although  calves  until  a  year  old  should  have  the  best  of  keeping, 
let  it  not  be  supposed,  that  they  will  afterwards  thrive  well  with  very 
indifferent  keeping.  It  is  but  too  common  for  farmers  to  turn  their 
young  2;rowing  cattle  into  jioor  pasturesof  stinted  growth,  or  into  wood? 
•where  there  is  not  sufficient  for  them  to  eat ;  by  means  of  which  their 
growth  is  retarded,  and  what  is  sometimes  worse,  they  learn  to  be- 
come habitually  unruly,  from  the  constant  temptation  they  are  under 
of  breaking  into  fields  where  there  is  plenty. 

In  the  first  settling  of  new  countries,  the  extensive  woodlands  may 
afford  plenty  of  good  food  for  young  cattle  ;  but  the  woodlands  of  old 
settled  countries  afford  but  little  food  that  is  well  calculated  for  their 
nourishment  and  growth.  In  such  cases  a  few  cattle  are  sufficient  to 
overstock  the  woods,  so  as  to  leave  them  little  to  eat,  excepting  what 
is  obtained  to  the  great  injury  of  the  young  growth  of  timber.  Grow- 
ing cattle,  if  their  pastures  be  not  of  the  best,  should  nevertheless  have 
plenty  to  eat  of  that  which  is  middling  good,^nd  the  same  may  be  ob- 
served in  regard  to  their  winter  food  ;  they  should  have  plenty  of  such 
fodder  as  they  will  eat  freely,  and  they  should  be  well  sheltered  from 
the  severity  of  the  weather.  When  ex|)Osed  to  cold  rains  in  winter, 
they  are  frequently  more  injured  than  when  exposed  to  much  colder 
snow  storms.   From  eachof  these  they  should  be  sheltered,  as  well  as 


FARMERVS  ASSISTANT.  15S 

rVom  the  cold  winds.  In  short,  the  better  and  more  comfortable  young 
cattle  are  kept,  the  larger  and  more  rapid  will  be  their  growth;  and 
although  middling  good  keeping  will  answer,  they  will  do  better  with 
better  keeping. 

The  keeping  of  cows  in  such  manner  as  to  make  them  give  the 
greatest  quantity  of  milk,  and  with  the  greatest  clear  profit,  is  au  es- 
sential point  of  economy.  Cows  are  in  general  very  poorly  kept  in 
this  country.  By  better  keeping  they  would  afford  more  clear  profit. 
Give  a  cow  half  a  bushel  of  potatoes,  carrots,  or  other  good  root,  per 
day,  during  the  six  winter  months,  beside  her  hay,  and  if  her  summer 
feed  be  such  as  it  should  be,  she  will  give  nearly  double  the  quantity 
of  milk  she  would  afford,  if  only  kept  during  winter  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, and  the  milk  will  be  richer  and  of  better  quality.  The  carrots, 
or  other  roots,  at  nineteen  cents  per  bushel,  amount  to  about  eighteen 
dollars.  The  addition  of  milk,  allowing  it  to  be  only  three  quarts  per 
day,  for  three  hundred  days,  at  three  cents  per  quart,  amounts  to 
tW'enty-seven  dollars.  It  should  be  remembered  too,  that  when  cows 
are  thus  fed  with  roots,  they  consume  less  hay.  They  are  also 
less  liable  to  several  diseases,  which  are  usually  the  effect  ol  poor 
keeping. 

The  feeding  of  milch  cows,  cattle  for  fatting,  and  for  labor,  with 
roots  and  cabbages,  is  a  very  prominent  part  of  the  employment  of 
the  British  graziers,  and  of  farmers  who  attend  to  the  dairy.  For  this 
pur{)Ose,  fields  of  turnips,  cabbages  and  carrots  are  yearly  raised,  and 
fed  out  to  the  cattle  during  the  fall,  winter  and  early  spring.  Beets, 
potatoes,  and  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  are  also  found  to  be  good  for 
this  purpose. 

Our  winters,  however,  being  much  severer  than  those  of  Great- 
Britain,  renders  the  feeding  of  cattle  with  roots,  <fec.  less  practicable 
than  it  is  in  that  country.  It  is  more  suitable  to  the  climate  of  the 
states  south  of  Pennsylvania.  Much  more,  however,  might  be  profit- 
ably done  in  this  way,  even  in  winter,  than  is  generally  imagined.  If 
the  farmer,  or  grazier,  were  first  to  provide  himself  with  a  cellar  or  a- 
partmeot  under  ground,  sufficiently  large  for  storing  away  his  roots, 
and  sufficiently  warm  to  prevent  their  freezing,  with  a  place  in  it  also, 
for  a  sleam-boUcr,  for  steaming  the  roots,  he  would  then  find  but  little 
difficulty  in  dealing  out  this  food  to  his  cows,  &c.  even  in  the  coldest 
weather.  In  this  ca-^e,  however,  they  must  be  kept  in  stalls,  with 
troughs  suitable  for  this  kind  of  food.  Nor  is  there  any  additional  ex- 
jvnnsp  in  fliis  :  as  it  1?  well  ascertained  that  this  is  the  most  economi- 

20 


154  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

cal  method  of  keeping  milch  cow?,  working,  and  fatting  of  cattle,  a» 
well  during  winter  as  during  summer.  In  winter,  as  the>  c  i  tie 
kept  warmer,  ainl  more  comfortably,  less  fodder  is  requisite  to  keep 
them  well  and  much  less  is  waited. 

See  article  Soiling  for  the  reasons  why  stall  feeding  is  also  to  be 
pTeferred  in  summer. 

Su  also,  article  Stable,  &.'e. 

For  a  description  of  a  stcam-boiUr,  su  article  Swine. 

If  milch  cows  be  pastured  in  summer,  they  should  have  the  best  or 
first  feeding  of  each  pasture  lot. 

S(e  article  Pa-'Tlre. 

See  also,  article  Grasses,  as  it  respects  those  which  are  best  for 
pastures. 

They  should  hare  plenty  of  water  and  that  which  is  good.  It  is 
also  good  for  them  to  have  plenty  of  shade  to  which  they  can  retire 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.  They  should  be  kept  quietly,  not  suf- 
fered to  be  worried  with  dogs,  or  by  having  stones  or  clubs  thrown  at 
them  as  is  but  too  common ;  nor  should  they  he  forced  to  travel  too 
far,  by  hariDg  their  pastures  at  too  sreat  a  distance;  for  these  are 
idl  matters  which  are  essential,  in  order  to  their  giving  the  greatest 
possible  quantity  of  milk. 

In  regard  to  milking  and  the  proper  treatment  of  the  milk,  see  ar- 
ticles Dair\.  Cream,  Chi  rn,  Bluer.  Cheese,  6cc. 

"\\  hen  cows  are  kept  very  fat  they  will  not  give  so  much  milk. 
The  proper  state  to  keep  them  in.  during  winter  and  summer,  is  that 
In  which  they  are  usually  found  when  ted  in  good  pastures  during  the 
latter  season.  On  the  contrary,  where  they  are  suffered  to  grow  poor 
daring  winter,  and  particularly  about  the  time  of  calvine,  their  milk 
^vill  be  greatly  lessened  in  quantity  during  the  following  season.  If 
they  are  plentifully  supplied  with  food  as  nutricious  as  that  of  green 
grass,  they  will  usually  give  plenty  of  milk  until  very  near  the 
time  of  calving. 

Some  cows  are  naturally  barren,  and  this  is  said  to  be  always  the 
case  where  a  male  and  temale  calf  are  brought  forth  together ;  the 
male  in  such  cases  is  perfect,  but  the  female  is  incapable  of  pro- 
pagating. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  cow  s  in  regard  lo  their  keep- 
ing for  some  weeks  before  calving.  They  should  have  plenty  of  good 
hay.  and  other  succulent  food,  such  as  roots  of  the  kinds  before  men- 
tioned, or  cabbages  with  the  decayed  leaves  taken  off;  or,  if  in  the 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  155 

growing  season,  they  should  have  plenty  of  good  sweet  pasture,  or 
other  good  green  food.  The  day  and  night  after  a  cow  has  calved, 
she  should  be  kept  housed,  and  her  drink  should  be  lukewarm  when 
given  to  her.  Let  her  be  kept  up  for  three  or  four  nights  thereafter, 
so  as  not  to  be  exposed  prematurelj^  to  the  cold  or  dampness  of  the 
atmos[»here,  for  this  tends  greatly  to  weaken  her.  If  she  does  not 
clean  well  after  calving,  Mr.  Deane  directs  to  give  her  a  pail  of  warm 
water  with  some  wood-ashes  in  it.  Particular  attention  should  be 
paid  to  this,  for  if  the  after-birth  be  suffered  to  remain  in  the  uterus,  it 
will  become  putrescent,  and  the  smell  will  sometimes  communicat^ 
an  infection  among  other  breeding  cows.  They  will  also  sometimes 
incline  to  eat  the  after-birth,  which  should  be  prevented. 

For  cleansing  the  cow,  the  directions  in  "  The  CempUie  Grasier" 
are,  to  put  about  three  quarts  of  water  over  the  fire,  and  when  warm, 
stir  in  as  much  oatmeal  as  will  make  a  strong  gruel ;  stir  it  till  it  boils; 
then  stir  in  a  quart  of  ale,  or  two  of  table  beer,  and  a  pound  of  treacle, 
,  and  give  it  to  the  beast  when  lukewarm.  This  will  also  prevent  their 
taking  cold. 

To  regulate  the  state  of  the  bodj',  give  a  mash  of  bran,  wetted  with 
warm  water.  Where  the  udder  is  hard,  it  should  be  milked  three  or 
four  times  a  day  ;  or  the  calf  should  be  allowed  to  suck  at  pleasure; 
and  care  should  be  taken  that  it  sucks  all  the  teats,  for  when  any  of 
these  are  sore  the  cow  will  sometimes  prevent  their  sucking  them.  If 
the  kernel  of  the  udder  is  hard,  the  hardness  may  be  removed  by  rub- 
bing it  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

The  natural  position  of  the  calf  in  the  uterus,  is,  with  its  forefeet 
and  head  foremost ;  the  forefeet  lying  parallel  on  each  side  of  the 
head,  and  the  back  uppermost.  When  found  in  any  other  position,  it 
is  unnatural,  and  the  extraction  of  the  calf  then  frequently  requires 
more  than  ordinary  skill.  I  have  known  them  safely  extracted  by 
fixing  a  hook  with  a  cord  to  it,  in  the  under  jaw  of  the  calf,  and  gent- 
ly drawing  them  away.  If  the  flesh  of  the  cow  be  torn  in  the  opera- 
lion,  it  should  be  carefully  sewed  up,  and  if  afterwards  swollen,  wash- 
ed with  warm  milk  and  water.  If  the  cow  disowns  or  refuses  to  lick 
the  young  calf,  a  little  salt  sprinkled  upon  it  will  have  the  desired 
effect. 

Sometimes,  cows,  from  abusive  treatment,  violent  exercise,  or  that 
unnatural  appetite,  called  longiti^,  slink  their  calves ;  and  in  such 
case  they  should  be  carefully  treated,  and  kept  warm  and  clean  till 
they  recover.  If  they  exhibit  previous  symptoms  of  this,  it  may  fre* 
ijuently  be  prevented  by  bleeding  them  two  or  three  times. 


156  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

It  would  be  a  great  improvement  of  our  husbandry,  if  our  farmers 
and  graziers,  stimulated  by  the  exam[)le  of  those  in  Great-Britain  and 
elsewhere,  would  enter  largely  into  the  culture  of  roots  and  cabbages 
for  feeding  milch  cows  and  fatting  cattle;  as  the  business  when  well 
conducted  is  very  profitable.  In  Norfolk,  and  other  countries  of 
Great-Britain,  great  quantities  of  turnips  are  raised  and  mostly  used 
for  fatting.  During  the  fall  they  are  put  into  carts  and  scattered  over 
the  stubble  of  the  last  harvested  wheat-field,  and  pains  is  taken  to 
scatter  them  over  every  part  of  the  ground  successively,  in  order  that 
each  part  may  have  equal  benefit  from  the  manure  thus  bestowed  oii 
the  land.  The  turnips  are  raised  with  an  iron  instrument  fixed  to  a 
handle  ;  on  the  other  side  of  which  instrument  are  edges  set  crossways 
to  cut  each  root  in  four  pieces  as  they  are  raised.  After  the  cattle 
have  eat  their  allowance,  which  should  be  no  more  than  they  can  eat 
at  once,  they  should  have  some  hay  given  them.  Part  of  the  crop 
of  turnips  are  also  gathered  and  stored  away  for  winter  feeding,  and 
some  are  left  in  the  ground  for  spring  feeding. 

Other  farmers  and  graziers,  again,  feed  their  fatting  and  other  cat- 
tle, in  stalls,  where  cabbages  and  roots  of  different  kinds  are  fed  out 
to  them ;  and  this  is  believed  to  be  the  most  economical  way.  These 
various  articles  of  food  are  much  more  efficacious  by  being  steam- 
boiled. 

For  the  various  roots,  &c.  to  serve  as  articles  of  food,  see  articles 
Carrot,  Parsnip,  Potatoe,  Jekusalem  Artichoke,  Mangel- 
WuRZEL,  Beet,  Tlrmp,  Tlrnip  Cabbage,  Cabbage,  &c. 

In  stall-feeding,  as  well  as  in  soiling,  great  attention  should  be  paid 
to  the  comfort  and  cleanliness  of  the  cattle.  Dr.  Anderson  says,  they 
shoidil  not  only  be  kept  clean  and  well  littered,  but  they  should  be 
currieil  daily  in  the  manner  of  horses,  and  that  they  will  fatten  much 
faster,  and  keep  better  for  this.  He  also  says,  that  particular  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  their  having  pure  water,  and  such  as  they  are 
fond  of.  It  is  obvious,  that  if  such  water  be  not  given  to  cattle,  they 
will  not  drink  as  much  as  they  want,  and  will,  therefore,  remain  in 
a  sufifering  condition,  which  is  repugnant  to  good  keeping  or  easy  fat- 
ting. They  should  also  have  water  often,  so  as  not  to  be  at  any  lime 
euPering  for  want  of  it.  Dr.  Anderson  states,  that  he  knew  a  man 
whf»  anained  great  opulence  by  attending  strictly  to  these  matters, 
particularly  to  the  important  point  of  having  a  continued  supply  of 
the  purest  water  lor  his  milch  cows  ;  nor  would  he  suffer  the  animah 
to  put  a  foot  in  it,  or  even  to  be  tainted  by  their  br»aih. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  157 

In  addition  to  the  various  roots  there  used  for  feediijg  and  falling 
cattle,  meal  of  different  kinds  is  used  to  advantage,  either  when  mix- 
ed with  steamed  or  saw  chopped  roots,  or  with  chopped  hay,  or  straw. 
Instead  of  wasting  the  straw,  as  is  but  too  common  liere,  it  is  all 
eaved,  and  used  lor  littering,  and  for  chopping  up  with  straw-cutting 
machines,  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  with  other  food,  and  thus  a  great 
saving  is  made  of  hay.  It  would  also  be  a  great  improvement  to  chop 
up  our  corn-stalks  in  the  same  manner.  The  kinds  of  grain  which 
might  be  used  here  to  most  advantage  for  grinding  up  and  mixing,  as 
before  meutioned,  are  probably  Indian  corn,  rye,  and  buckwheat. 
Machines  are  also  used  in  Great-Britain  for  grinding  different  kinds 
of  grain  by  hand,  with  which  a  man  may  grind  a  bushel  or  more  in  h 
quarter  of  an  hour. 

In  addition  to  the  above  articles  for  fatting  and  feeding  are  the 
grains  of  breweries  and  distilleries,  and  the  refuse  or  wash  of  starch 
factories,  which,  as  they  are  all  in  a  state  of  acidity  are  considered  by 
some  to  be  the  better  on  that  account  for  fatting.  Mr.  Young  particu- 
larly recommends,  that  all  meal  should  be  in  a  state  of  iermentation 
before  it  is  fed  out.  The  grains  of  breweries,  &c.  may  be  kept  during 
summer  in  vats  under  ground,  being  first  well  trod  down,  and  then 
well  covered  with  a  sufficient  depth  of  earth.  Oil  cakes  are  also  of 
great  use  for  fatting,  and  for  feeding  to  cows  before  calviog,  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  their  milk.  It  however  makes  the  beef  which 
is  fcitted  solely  with  it, of  a  loose  flabby  texture,  which  is  not  so  agree- 
able. Flaxseed  broth,  or  jelly,  is  also  much  recommended  for  fatting. 
It  is  made  by  putting  about  a  quart  of  flaxseed  to  seven  of  water,  and 
then  let  stand  about  forty-eight  hours  ;  after  which  it  is  to  be  boiled 
gently  for  two  hours,  minding  to  stir  it  frequently,  lest  it  burn.  After 
it  is  cooled,  it  is  to  be  mixed  with  n^eal,  bran,  or  cut  straw,  and  fed 
out  at  the  rate  of  about  two  quarts  a  day  to  each  beast,  and  it  is  said 
to  make  a  great  saving  in  the  article  of  food. 

It  is  stated  in  "  The  ComjjUte  Grcizier"  that  an  intelligent  farmer 
of  this  country,  but  of  what  part  is  not  mentioned,  tried  fatting  with 
turnips  from  October  until  February,  and  that  his  cattle  rather  lost 
flesh;  but  that  on  his  substituting  hay,  chopped  potatoes,  and  Indian 
meal  mixed  together,  they  soon  fattened.  Probably  a  difference  in 
climates  may  produce  different  results  in  regard  to  roots  which  are 
used  for  fatting.  But  as  the  cattle  in  question  were  fed  entirely  ou 
turnips,  which  might  have  produced  too  great  a  degree  of  laxity  or 
scouring,  it  is  probable,  that  had  the  turnips  only  constituted  the  same 


158  FARMER'S  ASSISTAIST. 

proporHou  of  food  which  the  potatoes  did,  they  might  have  proved 
equally  nourishing.  In  regard,  hciwever,  to  raising  the  different  ar- 
ticles for  feeding  and  fatting,  those  should  be  cultivated  which  yield 
most  in  the  different  soils  and  climates  of  this  country :  and  which  at 
the  same  time,  are  found  most  efficacious  lor  fatting,  or  in  |>roducing 
the  most,  and  the  richest  and  best  flavored  milk. 

On  the  experimental  farm  of  the  Marchioness  of  Salisbury,  TGreat- 
Britain,)  parsnips  are  preferred,  as  well  for  feeding  as  for  fatting:  and 
(br  the  latter  use  are  esteemed  almost  equal  to  the  oil-cake.  The 
milk  of  the  cows  fed  with  them,  is  also  very  |)lenlirul,  rich,  and  well 
tasted.  Next  to  the  parsnip,  is,  perhaps,  the  carrot.  Mr.  Yuung 
states,  that  four  bullocks,  six  milch  cows,  and  twenty  working  horses 
were  fed  a  few  years  since  at  Partington,  in  Yorkshire,  for  above  five 
months  with  carrots,  which  were  the  protiuce  of  three  acres  only,  and 
with  no  other  food  than  a  little  hay  during  that  time.  He  adds,  that 
the  milk  was  excellent  in  quality  and  flavor  ;  and  that  the  refuse  or 
waste,  with  a  small  quantity  of  other  food,  fatted  thirty  swine. 

The  hay  used  for  feeding  and  fatting  is  greatly  im|)roved  by  the 
addition  of  a  little  salt.  I\Ir.  Darke,  of  Breedon,  (Great-Britain.)  says, 
that  by  adding  only  eight  pounds  of  salt  to  a  ton  offloaded  mouldy 
hay,  he  found  that  his  oxen  did  better  on  it  than  others  which  were 
fed  on  the  best. 

The  proprietors  of  the  Bolingbroke  distillery,  near  London,  says 
the  compiler  of  "  The  Complete  Grazier,''''  have  erected  stalls  for  fat- 
ting about  three  hundred  and  fifty  head  of  cattle  at  a  time.  The  stalls 
are  paved  with  brick,  and  great  attention  is  paid  to  keeping  them 
clean.  The  food  for  fatting  is  the  wash  or  grains  of  the  stills,  and  haj*, 
and  occasionally,  chopped  oat  or  barley-straw.  The  hay  or  straw  it 
given  twice  a  day,  that  they  may  ruminate  as  usual;  and  they 
!iave  as  much  grains  as  they  can  eat.  In  general,  they  come 
readily  to  this  food ;  though  some  are  four  or  five  days  before  they 
become  fond  of  it.  They  are  usually  fatted  in  about  sixteen  weeks. 
The  grains  are  conveyed  to  the  stalls  in  tight  bodied  carts,  made  for 
the  purpose,  and  turned  into  vats  fitted  for  their  reception.  Others 
again,  practice  chop|)ing  the  hay  and  straw  fine,  and  mixing  it  with 
the  grains  in  the  vats,  and  letting  the  mass  lie  two  or  three  days,  in 
order  to  give  the  taste  of  the  hay  to  the  whole.  The  cattle  thus  kept, 
afford  great  quantities  of  excellent  manure.  Particular  attention  is 
paid  to  their  littering,  in  order,  that  when  done  eating,  they  may  lie 
down  and  repose  comfortably ;  for  comfortable  and  quiet  repose,  as 
well  as  cleaulineps.  i?  deemed  essential  to  their  speedy  fattin'.' 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  1^9 

It  would  seem,  that  the  saccharine  parts  of  vegetables  contribute 
very  essentially  iu  Tatting,  and  for  this  reason,  molasses  has  been  suc- 
cessfully used  in  the  West-Indies  for  fatting  the  poor  old  worn  out  oxen 
that  are  used  there.  About  half  a  pint  is  given  them  twice  a  day, 
mixed  with  other  food  for  this  purpose. 

A  beast  will  eat  more  in  a  cold  day  than  in  a  warm  damp  one;  and 
therefore,  where  messes  are  dealt  out  in  stall  feeding,  regard  should 
be  had  to  this  circumstance  when  the  food  is  such  as  may  cloy  the 
cattle,  and  thus  weaken  their  stomachs  ;  for  in  that  case  they  are  lia- 
ble to  fall  back  until  the  tone  of  the  stomach  is  recovered.  Regula- 
rity in  the  times  of  feeding,  and  that  Ihose  times  be  as  nearly  equi-dis- 
tant  as  possible,  are  also  essential  points  to  be  observed. 

The  quantity  of  food  to  be  given  to  fatting  cattle  should  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  weight  of  each.  An  ox  will  eat  a  little  less  than  a  fifth 
of  his  weight  per  day  of  cabbages,  and  about  a  third  of  his  weight  of 
turnips,  beside  a  little  dr}-^  food  to  counteract  the  super-abundant  mois- 
ture of  the  roots.  For  middle  sized  animals  from  a  bushel  to  a  bushel 
and  a  half  of  brewers  or  distiller's  grains,  with  some  dry  food,  will  be 
consumed  in  a  day.  About  a  sixth  part  of  the  animal's  weight,  with 
the  addition  of  some  dry  food,  is  the  proper  alioAvance,  per  day,  of 
carrots  or  potatoes.  About  a  pound  of  powdered  oil-cake,  and  another 
of  hay,  for  every  hundred  weight  of  the  animal,  is  the  usual  allow- 
ance per  day  of  this  food  ;  but  the  quantity  of  the  former  is  to  be  gra- 
dually increased  as  the  fatting  progresses,  until  it  is  one  half  more 
than  at  first. 

It  is  stated  in  the  work  last  mentioned,  tliat  every  load  of  hay  and 
litter  given  to  beasts  fatting  on  oil-cake,  will  make  seven  loads  of  dung; 
and,  that  one  load  of  this  is  more  efficacious,  as  a  manure,  than  two  of 
common  barn  dung.  It  is  also  there  stated,  that  Mr.  Moody  littered 
forty-five  oxen,  while  fatting,  with  twenty  waggon  loads  of  stubble, 
and  that  the  product  of  dung,  when  rotted  and  fermented,  was  six  hun- 
dred tons.  Another  trial  is  also  there  mentioned,  of  Blr.  White,  who 
tied  up  thirty-six  cows  and  four  horses,  and  while  they  ate  fifty  tons 
of  hay  and  had  twenty  acres  of  straw  for  litter,  made  three  hundred 
tons  of  rotten  dung,  in  good  order  for  the  land. 

In  addition  to  gathering  stubble  for  the  purpose  of  littering,  our 
farmers  may  supply  themselves  with  ample  quantities  of  dry  leaves 
every  fall ;  as  they  may  be  easily  raked  up  and  gathered  in  the  woods, 
lor  the  purpose.  Mr.  Livingston  makes  mention  of  his  having  used 
fbi^  substitute,  in  his  valuable  essay  on  »he«p. 


160  FARMER'S  ASSISTArsT. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe,  in  concluding  our  remarks  on  feed- 
iog  and  I'attinc,  that  as  the  larger  English  breeds  require  richer  pas- 
tures for  thriving  well  than  the  smaller,  many  of  the  best  English 
graziers  hare  latterly  preferred  the  best  selections  of  the  latter,  as 
being  on  the  whole  most  profitable. 

When  a  beast  is  well  fatted,  outwardly,  it  is  indicated  by  its  plump 
and  comely  appearance ;  its  skin  on  the  lowermost  ribs  will  leel  kindli^ 
and  mellow^  as  the  English  graziers  say — that  is,  soft  and  yet  (irm  to 
the  touch  ;  the  part  where  the  tail  is  set  on,  will  feel  plump  and  »oft ; 
and  the  natch  bones,  as  they  are  called,  which  lie  on  either  si<le  of  the 
root  oi"  the  tail,  will  feel  loose  and  nell  covered.  When  also  the  cod 
of  the  ox,  or  the  navel  of  the  cow  fe*'!  thick,  round  and  plump,  and 
the  hips  are  well  covered,  these  are  indications  of  their  being  well 
lined  with  tallow. 

As  the  grazier  is  usually  less  skilled  in  judging  of  the  weight  of  live 
cattle  than  the  butcher,  Lord  Kaims  advises  selling  them  by  weight. 
This  may  be  done  in  a  manner  very  similar  to  that  commonly  iirac 
tised  for  weighing  loads  of  hay.      The  beast  is  to  be  suspended  by 
being  put  in  a  box  made  for  the  purpose. 

The  weighing  of  cattle,  T-,ord  Kaims  well  observes,  is  also  ustfjl  in 
order  to  ascertain  whether  each  beast  fattens  in  proportion  to  the  va- 
lue of  the  food  bestowed  on  it;  as  it  may,  in  some  instances,  l>e  bes* 
to  dispose  of  such  as  do  not. 

The  four  quarters,  says  Lord  Kaims,  are  aI>out  half  of  the  whole 
weight  of  the  beast  when  alive,  and  when  its  !>elly  is  moderately  lull; 
the  skin  is  about  the  eighteenth  part:  the  tallow  aI>oul  the  twelfth; 
the  remainder  is  composed  of  the  head,  feet,  tripe,  bloo«l,  6cc.  which 
offals  never  sell  by  weight,  but  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  beast- 
With  a  knowledge,  therefore,  of  these  particulars,  aud  of  the  market 
price  of  the  beef,  tallow,  skin,  <fcc.  the  farmer  or  grazier  can  ascertain 
%vhat  his  beasts  are  worth  when  alive. 

By  weighing  fatted  calves  when  alive,  says  the  same  author, 
and  deducting  eight  pounds  from  every  twenty,  the  remainder  will 
prove  to  be  about  the  weight  of  the  four  quarters. 

The  diseases  of  neat  cattle  are  various  :  and  frequently  new  and 
uncommon  diseases  occur.  A  farmer  in  this  vicinity,  (llerkinur,) 
informs  me  that  he  lost  eleven  head  during  the  last  winter.  (1813.)  by 
a  new,  and  till  then,  unknown  ilisease.  When  hiscattle  were  attack- 
ed with  this  disorder,  it  was  indicated  tty  small  protu!>eranccs  api>ear- 
ing  round  the  neck ;  and  after  the  beasts  died,  some  of  these  were 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  161 

opened,  and  were  found  to  be  full  of  worma  or  maggots.  Probably,  if 
these  liim|)3  or  protuberances  had  been  opened  and  cleansed,  whea 
they  first  appeared,  the  cattle  might  have  been  saved. 

A  disorder  prevails  among  neat  cattle  in  the  northern  parts  of  this 
state,  which  is  usually  termed  the  hooJ-aiL  It  has  ruined  many  hun- 
dred cattle  in  this  county.  It  would  seem  that  the  feet  of  the  cat- 
tle first  become  diseased,  and  then  they  are  frozen  during  the  course. 
of  the  winter,  after  which  they  are  of  no  further  value  except  for 
their  skins. 

There  is  probably  something  in  certain  soils  which  is  calculated  to 
injure  the  feet  of  cattle  in  the  fall,  and  thus  render  them  more  liable 
to  the  frosts  of  winter.  In  Herkimer  county,  those  cattle  which  are 
kept  on  farms  of  moist  rich  soil  have  been  most  liable  to  this  disorder; 
and  it  is  believed,  that  such  as  are  fed  on  sandy,  sandy  loam,  or  grav- 
elly farms,  have  seldom  suffered  in  this  way.  Probably  it  would  be 
found,  that  pursuing  the  soiling  husbandry,  feeding  the  cattle  with 
plenty  of  rich  food,  as  has  been  before  directed,  and  keeping  them 
well  littered  in  warm  stables*  would  at  once  be  the  most  profitable 
and  effectual  method  of  avoiding  this  disordes. 

In  the  spring,  our  cattle  which  have  been  ^poorly  kept  through  the 
winter,  are  subject  to  a  wasting  of  the  pith  ol«the  horn,  which  is  usu- 
ally called  the  horn  distemper.  It  is  sometimes  in  one  horn  only  and 
sometimes  in  both.  The  indications  of  the  disease  .are  coldness  of 
the  horn,  dullness  of  the  eyes,  sluggishness,  want  of  appetite,  and  a 
disposition  to  lie  down.  When  the  brain  is  affected,  the  animal  will 
toss  its  head,  groan,  and  exhibit  indications  of  great  pain.  To  cure 
the  disease,  bore  a  hole  with  a  small  gimblet  in  the  lower  side  of  the 
horn,  about  an  inch  from  the  head,  and  the  corrupted  matter  in  the 
hdrn  will  run  out.  If  this  does  not  complete  the  cure,  Mr.  Deane  di- 
rects, that  the  horn  have  a  mixture  of  rum,  honey,  myrrh,  and  aloes 
ihrown  into  it  with  a  syringe ;  and  tliat  this  be  repeated  till  the  cure 
be  effected.  Probably  warm  water  thrown  in  would  answer  just  as 
■well ;  as  the  essential  point  seems  to  be  to  cleanse  the  horn  of  the  cor- 
rupted matter. 

Another  disease,  to  which  our  poorly  kept  cattle  are  subject  in 
the  spring,  is  commonly  called  tlie  tail  .sickness.  In  this  case  the  tail 
becomes  hollow  and  relaxed.  The  cure  is  effected,  says  Mr.  Deane, 
by  cutting  of  a  small  piece  of  the  tail,  which  will  be  attended  with  a 
small  discharge  of  blood;  or  when  the  hoilovv  part  is  near  the  end, 
cut  a  slit  in  it  one  or  two  inches  long  ami  this  will  effect  a  cure. 

21 


162  FARMER'S  ASSlSTAN'r. 

The  gripes  or  cholic,  is  mostly  troublesome  to  young  cattle.  Wheu 
attacked  with  K,  they  lie  down  aud  rise  up  incessantly,  and  keep  strik- 
ing their  horns  against  any  object  that  presents.  It  is  attended  either 
with  costiveness  or  scouring.  In  the  former  case,  they  are  to  be  treat- 
ed with  purgatives,  and  in  the  latter  w  rth  restringents.  To  stop  the 
purging,  give  them  half  a  pint  of  olive  oil  sweetened  with  sugar;  ora 
quart  of  ale  mixed  with  a  few  drops  of  laudanum,  and  two  or  three 
ounces  of  oil  of  sweet  ahnomls.  To  promote  purging,  give  them  five 
or  six  drachms  of  fine  Barbadoes  aloes,  and  half  a  pint  of  brandy, 
mixed  with  two  quarts  of  water-groel,  in  a  lukewarm  state.  These 
are  the  directions  of"  The  Complete  Grazier  "  but  it  is  believed,  thai 
Other  purgatives  and  restringents  would  answer  as  weH.  In  either 
case  speedy  attention  to  the  beast  is  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  aa 
inflammation  of  the  intestines,  which  most  prove  fatal. 

The  scourmg  is  known  in  neat  cattle  by  the  frequent  disoharge  of 
gTimy  excrement,  loss  of  appetite,  loss  of  flesh,  increasing  paleness  of 
the  eyes,  and  general  debility.  The  beast  should  be  immediately 
housed  and  put  to  dry  food,  and  this  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease, 
will  generally  effect  a  cure.  Should  it,  however,  fail,  it  b  directed  in 
the  work  last  mentioned,  to  bort  a  pound  of  mutton  suet  in  three 
quarts  of  milk,  till  tlie  former  is  dissolved,  and  give  it  to  the  beast  Id 
a  lukewarm  state;  or,  in  obstinate  case?,  boil  half  a  pound  of  pow- 
deretl  chalk  iu  two  quarts  of  water,  till  it  is  reducetl  to  three  pints  ;  add 
four  oaoees  of  hartshorn  shavings,  one  of  casia,  and  stir  the  whole  to- 
gether; when  cold,  add  a  pint  of  lime  water  and  two  drachms  of  the 
tinctuf  e  of  opium  ;  keep  the  whole  in  a  corked  bottle,  and  after  shak- 
ing it  before  using,  give  one  or  two  hornsful  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
as  the  nature  of  the  case  may  require.  Sometimes,  however,  thi? 
disease  proves  incurable. 

Cattle  sometimes  become  hovcn,  as  it  is  termed,  owing  to  eating  too 
much  when  first  turned  into  rich  pastures,  to  swallowing  potatoes,  or 
other  roots  without  sufficient  chewing,  and  to  other  causes.  The 
stomach  of  the  animal  becomes  distended  with  wind,  and  if  a  vent 
for  this  cannot  be  afforded  the  beast  must  die. 

The  usual  remedy  is  to  open  a  hole  with  a  sharp  pointed  knife, 
with  a  blade  three  or  four  inches  long,  between  the  hip  and  the  short 
ribs,  where  the  swelling  rises  highest,  and  insert  a  small  tube  in  the 
orifice,  till  the  wind  ceases  to  be  troublesome.  The  wound  will 
soon  heal  again. 

But  some  of  the  English  graziers  have  adopted  an  improved  method 
oT  obviating  this  con>i>laint;  this  is  by  providing  a  flexible  tube,  with 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  163 

d  knob  at  one  end  ;  the  tube  with  the  knob-end  foremost,  is  run  down 
the  throat  of  the  beast  into  its  stomach,  and  then  the  confined  air 
escapes  through  the  tube.  The  operation  is  repeated  if  necessary. 
The  tube  for  a  large  ox  should  be  upwards  of  six  feet  long,  as  that  is 
about  the  length  requisite  to  reach  to  the  bottom  of  his  stomach. 

The  method  recommended  by  Mr.  Young  for  curing  this  complaint, 
k,  to  take  three  fourths  of  a  pint  of  olive-oil,  and  a  pint  of  melted  but- 
ter, or  hog's-lard,  and  pour  this  mixture  down  the  throat  of  the  beast  j 
and,  if  no  favorable  change  be  produced  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  re^ 
peat  the  dose.  For  sheep,  about  a  gill  should,  in  like  manner,  be  giv- 
en, and  the  dose  repeated,  if  necessary.  Mr.  Young  asserts  this  to 
be  a  specific  which  will  not  fail  of  a  cure  in  half  an  hour. 

To  prevent  this  disorder,  cattle  should  not  be  turned  at  first  with 
empty  stomachs  into  rich  pastures ;  nor  should  they  be  allowed  to  feed 
on  potatoes  and  some  other  roots,  without  their  being  first  cut  in  pieces. 
Where  a  beast,  however,  hapi)ens  to  get  one  of  these  in  its  throat, 
which  cannot  be  forced  down,  take  a  smooth  pliable  rod  and  make  a 
knob  on  the  end,  by  winding  and  tying  rags  round  it,  and  run  this 
«lown  its  throat  into  the  stomach,  which  will  force  all  I?efore  it  into 
that  receptacle. 

The  staggers  are  easily  known  by  the  drowsiness,  lethargy,  and 
staggering  gait  of  the  animal.  This  disorder  is  sometimes  occasioned 
by  plethora,  or  fullness  of  blood,  and  sometimes  it  is  seated  on  the 
brain ;  in  which  case  it  is  incurable,  unless  by  trepanning.  In  the 
former  case,  the  remedy  is  to  keep  the  beast  housed  and  bleed  and 
pqrge  it  sufficiently. 

For  wounds  of  cattle,  see  article  Wounds. 

The  ovcrfiomng  of  the  gall,  which  is  also  sometimes  called  the  yel- 
loivs  or  jaundice,  is  known  by  the  yellow  tinge  in  the  mouth  and  eyes, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  body  assumes  a  yellowish  cast.  The  nose 
is  dry ;  the  udder  of  the  cow  becomes  swollen,  aod  yields  but  little 
milk,  which  also  becomes  yellow  and  curdled  on  being  boiled,  and 
sometimes  the  fore  teeth  become  very  loose. 

The  beast  affected  with  this  disorder  should  be  housed  and  have 
two  or  three  gentle  purges  ;  then  give  it,  twice  a  day,  a  pint  of  beer 
in  which  has  been  iafused,  for  three  or  four  days,  about  an  ounce  to 
each  quart  of  the  filings  of  iron,  and  a  small  quantity  of  hard  soap. 
Let  the  beast  be  well  kept  during  the  time  with  warm  messes  of  bran, 
and  other  nourishing  food,  to  which  some  olive-oil,  or  other  purgative 
medicine  should  be  added,  if  the  beast  be  costive. 


164  far:mer's  assistant. 

For  curing  this  ili-onler.  Mr.  Deane  directs-,  to  take  an  eg«  aotl 
empty  it  of  its  white,  retaining  it?  jo'ik,  and  fjli  the  cavity  wiih  equal 
quantities  of  soot,  salt,  and  black  pe|>|»er;  draw  out  the  tongue  of  the 
beast,  and  with  a  smooth  stick  push  the  egg  down  its  throat.  Repeat 
this  two  or  three  mornings,  and  he  says,  it  will  seldom  fail  of  a  cure. 

Sometimes^  however,  this  disonler  does  not  jield  to  the  power  of 
medicine,  but  at  length  turns  to  the  black  Jaundice,  which  la  in- 
curable. 

The  disorder  called  red  reeuer,  or  Toiding  blootly  urine, it  is  believ- 
ed, has  seldom  or  never  prevailed  in  this  country.  Its  attacks  are 
mosiiy  on  young  beasts,  which  in  that  case  are  seen  leaving  the  herd 
and  exhibiting  freqaent  ineffectual  attempts  to  void  uriue. 

The  British  practice  has  been  to  house  the  beast  and  give  it  two 
doses  of  glauber-sa Its,  of  a  f>ound  each,  in  two  succeeding  days;  but 
this  practice  is  condemned  in  •'  Thf  CompUtc  Grazier,'''  and  instead 
of  purgatives,  strong  decoctions  of  Peruvian  or  wliite-oak  bark  and 
alum,  are  recommended  to  be  given,  in  such  quantities,  and  at  such 
time?,  as  the  violence  of  the  disease  maj'  require. 

The  pantane  is  known  by  the  jianting  or  heaving  of  the  animal'^ 
flanks,  which  is  accompanied  with  trembling  and  a  decay  of  flesh. 
House  the  beast,  and  give  it,  every  six  hours,  during  the  continuance 
of  the  chilly  symptoms,  a  quart  of  warm  strong  beer,  in  which  a  table 
spoonful  of  laudanum,  another  of  ground  ginger,  and  two  of  the  spirits 
of  hartshorn  have  been  infused.  The  beast  should  be  fed  on  sweet 
hay,  and  well  littered.  Its  drink  should  be  warm  water,  with  a  little 
nitre  dissolved  in  it,  if  there  be  symptoms  of  fever.  As  it  gains 
strength,  let  it  out  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  until  such  time  as  it 
has  fully  recovered. 

The  inflammanan  of  the  liver  is  indicated  by  ferer,  difficult  breath- 
ing, a  sweliiog  near  the  shorter  ribs,  and  in  cows,  a  remarkable  dis- 
tension about  the  womb.  Cattle  affected  wiih  this  disorder  will  never 
fatten.  It  ii  sometimer  hereditary  in  certain  breeds;  in  which  case, 
it  b  incurable.  In  the  work  last  mentioned,  it  is  recommended  to 
house  the  beast,  bleed  it  profusely,  aodgiveit  the  following  meJicine 
in  a  tepid  state,  vii  : 

Saltpetre  and  glauber''s  salts,  of  each  two  ounces;  Venice  treacle, 
mithridate  and  white  gineer,  pulverize-d.  of  each  one  ounce;  let  these 
be  boiled  in  three  pints  ot  water,  in  which  may  be  gradually  added, 
one  gill  of  oilof  sweet  almonds,  the  whole  being  stirred  together.  This 
13  rj5&cieat  for  one  dose,  which  should  be  repeated  the  succeeding  day. 


FARIMER'S  ASSISTANT.  ]65 

Warm  messes  of  bran  shoaid  be  the  principal  diet  of  the  beast  till  it 
has  recovered. 

The  injlammarion  of  the  lungs  is  known  by  a  shortness  of  breath, 
and  a  painful  cough.  The  animal  looks  dull ;  the  skin  is  hot  and 
harsh  ;  and  a  copious  discharge  of  thick  ropy  phlegm  issues  from  its 
inouth.  House  the  beast,  bleed  it  plentifully,  and  give  it  a  dose  com- 
posed of  the  flour  of  sulphur,  balsam  of  sulphur,  syruj;  of  colt's-loot 
and  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  of  each  an  ounce,  blended  together.  If  the 
above  treatment  produces  no  visible  alteration  in  eighteen  hours,  re- 
peat it.  Probably  any  other  purge  would  answer  as  well  as  the  above. 
Let  the  beast  be  kept  comfortable  and  have  some  exercise  every  day 
till  it  recovers. 

The  lockcd-jaw  is  similar  to  that  in  the  human  frame,  is  caused  by 
similar  means,  and  requires  a  similar  treatment.  If  the  beast  be  hardy 
opiate  frictions,  and  dashing  on  of  cold  Avater  is  recommended.  If  it 
be  of  slender  constitution,  opiate  frictions  and  warm  fomentations  of 
the  part  affected  is  directed.  As  the  beast  cannot  swallow,  let  gruel 
be  poured  down  its  throat  with  a  horn  till  the  disorder  is  removed. 

The  indications  of  colds  in  cattle,  to  which  they  are  mostly  liable 
in  the  spring,  are  hollowness  of  the  flanks,  roughness  of  the  coat,  he^t 
of  the  breath,  and  running  at  the  eyes.  House  the  beast,  keep  it 
■warm,  and  if  it  be  very  feverish,  bleed  it  pretty  freely,  and  let  its 
drink  be  warm,  and  have  some  nitre  dissolved  in  it.  Expose  it  to 
the  air,  at  first,  in  the  middle  of  pleasant  days,  when  recovering. 

Cattle  are  sometimes  poisoned  by  eating  poisonous  plants,  or  by 
being  bit  with  mad  dogs,  ic.  In  the  latter  case,  if  the  wounde('  part 
be  cut  away  shortly  after  the  bite,  and  then  be  kept  open  for  some 
time,  it  is,  perhaps,  the  only  eflectual  remedy.  Dr.  Grouse's  prescrip- 
tion for  curing  the  bite  of  mad  dogs,  as  made  public  in  pursuance  of 
a  law  of  this  state,  is  believed  by  many  to  be  effectual,  and  is  certainly 
worth  the  trial.  It  is  believed,  that  any  medicine  which  is  very 
strongly  anti-spasmodic,  if  given  plentifully,  and  in  proper  season. 
Mill  counteract  the  effects  of  the  bite  of  mad  animals. 

For  the  bite  of  rattle-snakes  and  most  other  vipers,  a  plentiful  dose, 
and  repeated  when  necessary,  of  olive-oil,  has  been  found  effectual  in 
most  cases. 

Other  diseases  of  neat-catlle,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  mention,  which 
have,  at  times,  prevailed  in  particular  places.  Some  years  since,  a 
very  fatal  disease,  which  principally  attacked  calves  in  the  fall,  and 
yearlings  in  May  and  June,  and  Bometimea  older  cattle,  prevailed  in 


166  PARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Connecticut.  It  was  called  tiie  mortification.  Those  in  the  ben 
eonclition  were  most  liable  to  it.  Its  symptoms  were  ao  aversion  to 
move,  a  swelling  most  commonly  in  the  region  of  the  kidney,  but 
sometimes  in  the  shoulder,  leg,  flank,  or  side,  6cc. ;  and  in  a  short 
time  the  beast  died  with  little  pain,  but  with  a  very  foetid  smell.  On 
examining  the  swellings,  they  were  found  to  contain  a  jelly  and  black 
blood.  The  cause  was  ascribed  to  fulness  of  habit,  and  a  too  sudden 
change  from  indifferent  pastures  into  such  as  are  very  rich.  Bleeding 
was  recommended  as  a  preventive.     No  cure  was  discovered. 

A  disease,  something  similar  to  the  above,  prevailed,  about  sixty 
years  since,  in  the  north  of  England,  which  was  commonly  called  the 
black  quarter.  Bleeding  was  found  a  preventive;  but  in  very  few  in- 
stances was  a  cure  effected,  after  the  beast  was  seized  with  the  dis- 
order. This  was  ascribed  to  too  much  succulent  food  when  given  to 
beasts  of  full  habit. 

It  would  seem,  generally,  that  cattle  in  a  plethoric  state,  when 
overfed  with  rich  food,  or  when  too  suddenly  surfeited  with  it,  are 
suddenly  indisposed  and  carried  off  before  relief  can  be  given.  Ther« 
are,  however,  epidemics  among  cattle,  as  well  as  among  men,  the  pre- 
cise causes  of  which  may  oftentimes  be  difficult  to  ascertain.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  it  is  believed,  that  among  the  horned  race  eilher  plen- 
tiful bleeding,  or  purging,  or  both,  will  be  found  a  preventive,  and  in 
inost  instances,  a  cure,  of  the  maladies  which  are  usually  most  fatal  to 
them  from  too  full  habit. 

When  oxen  are  long  and  hardly  drove  in  rpuddy  roads,  particularly 
where  the  soil  is  calcarious,  they  are  liable  to  a  soreness  between 
their  claws.  This  will  make  the  beast  lame;  and  when  diecovered, 
the  part  should  be  cleansed  and  healed  with  some  pro|)er  ointment. 
Sometimes,  from  inattention  to  this,  the  part  becomes  horny ;  in  this 
case,  the  hard  parts  must  be  cut  avvay  and  the  wounded  flesh  cured. 

A  general  indication  of  health  in  neat  cattle  is  a  moist  or  wet  nose, 
and  when  this  is  found  dry,  it  is  a  certain  symptom  pf  disease  of  some 
kind  or  other. 

Cows  have  some  diseases  which  are  peculiar  to  them,  such  as  those 
attendant  on  calving,  and  such  as  affect  the  udder,  6:c. 

The  udder  is  divided  into  as  many  apartment?  as  there  are  teats,  so 
that  if  one  or  more  of  these  are  diseased,  this  docs  not  affect  the  rest. 
The  milk  of  one  teat  may  be  gootl  and  that  of  another  bad.  The  udt 
ders  of  cows  may  be  injured  in  various  ways,  and  swellings  and  inflam- 
mations are  the  usual  consequence.     These  must  be  removed,  or  the 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  167 

beast  will  be  in  danger.  Mr.  Deane,  speaking  of  hard  swellings  in  the 
udder,  which  he  calls  the  garget,  recommends  making  a  rowel  or  se- 
ton  in  the  dewlap,  and  inserting  therein  a  piece  of  the  root  or77ifc/M>a' 
can,  as  large  as  a  nutmeg,  with  a  string  fastened  to  it,  so  that  it  may 
be  drawn  out  when  the  cure  is  efifected  ;  and  this,  he  says,  will  cause 
a  revulsion  of  the  humor  in  the  udder  into  the  orifice  in  the  dewlap, 
where  it  will  be  discharged.  When  the  cure  is  effected,  the  piece  of 
root  is  to  be  drawn  out  by  the  string.  Probably  a  common  rowe! 
placed  in  the  breast  or  dewlap,  would  answer  the  same  purpose. 
Where  hard  tumors  have  formed,  the  compiler  of  "  The  CompUlt 
Qrazier"'  recommends,  to  take  of  common  hemlock,  (conium  macula' 
turn, J  dwarf  or  round  leaved  mallow,  (maha  rommUfolia,)  and  com- 
mon millilot,  (trifolium  miUilotus,)  of  each  a  handful,  and  boil  them  in 
water;  with  this  wash  the  tumor,  after  it  has  opened  ;  the  water  to  be 
as  warm  as  the  beast  can  bear  it;  and  after  thus  cleansing  the  part, 
cover  it  with  a  plaister  of  basilicon  ointment.  The  following  is  also 
recommended  in  the  last  mentioned  work,  in  obstinate  cases  of  ulcer- 
ated udders;  take  gum  ammoniac,  gum  galbanum,  castile-soap,  am! 
extract  of  hemlock,  of  each  one  ounce;  form  them  into  eight  boiusses, 
and  give  one  every  morning  and  evening.  It  is  observed  in  the 
same  work,  that  internal  remedies  are  always  necessary  where  the 
fidder  and  teats  are  considerably  inflamed,  and  for  this  purpose  another 
internal  medicine  is  mentioned,  viz:  Four  ounces  of  nitre  mixed 
with  a  pound  of  common  salt  ;  give  two  table  spoonsful  of  this,  pow- 
dered in  a  gallon  of  thin  water-gruel,  every  three  hours. 

Where  the  inflammations  are  less  violent  and  exliibit  no  symptom 
of  increasing  rapidly,  it  may  answer  to  anoint  the  udder  frefjuently 
during  the  day,  with  fresh  butter;  or  with  a  salve  made  of  an  ounce 
of  castile-soap,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  sweet  milk  over  a  gentle  fire: 
or  with  an  ointment  made  with  the  juice  of  the  leaves  of  the  thorn; 
mixed  with  hogslard ;  or  the  tumor  may  be  anointed  with  a  little 
mixture  of  camphor  and  blue  ointment ;  and  let  about  half  a  drachm 
of  calomel  be  given,  in  a  hornful  of  warm  beer,  if  the  malady  in- 
crease. 

Where  the  teats  are  only  sore,  they  may  be  washed  with  soap-suds^ 
and  rubbed  with  an  ointment  made  of  white-lead  and  goose-grease, 
or  fresh  butter  would  perhaps  do  as  well. 

The  proper  position  for  tlie  calf  to  lie  in  the  calf-bed  has  already 
been  mentioned  ;  where,  therefore,  it  is  not  presented  in  this  position, 
s»t  the  time  for  its  birth,  and  by  reason  of  this  the  cow  cannot  deliver 


168  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

her  burden,  it  becomes  necessar}-,  if  posjible,  to  place  it  properlyi 
Where  this  cannot  be  done,  the  niethoti  of  extracting  it  by  a  hook 
fixed  in  the  under  jaw,  as  before  mentioned,  may  l)e  frequently  suc- 
cessfully practiced.  Sometimes  the  hind  [)art5  of  the  call  are  fore-' 
most ;  and  in  this  case  it  is  best  to  extract  it  in  that  position,  by  pro- 
per force  used  for  the  purpose.  Whatever  assistance,  however,  may 
be  requisite  in  these  cases,  it  should  be  given  with  care  and  judgment, 
minding  to  hurt  the  cow  as  little  as  possible. 

Another  impediment  to  calving,  as  noticed  in  the  last  mentione'd 
work,  is  owing  to  a  part  of  the  natural  passage  becoming  of  so  horny 
or  6rm  a  texture,  that  it  will  not  yield  or  distend.  When  on  tlue  ex- 
amination this  is  found  to  be  the  case,  insert  a  sharp  pointed  penknife 
with  the  forefinger  to  the  back  of  it,  to  guide  it  correctly,  and  with 
this  carefully  cut  the  horny  circle  through,  which  will  immediately 
give  the  animal  the  requisite  relief,  if  proper  assistance  be  also  given. 
In  this  case,  as  in  others  where  the  passage  is  wounded,  or  torn,  it 
should  be  bathed  with  a  pint  of  camphorated  spirit  of  wine,  injected 
with  a  syringe  ;  the  beast  should  be  housed  and  ke[)t  moderately 
warm,  and  well  and  dryly  littered,  and  l)e  fed  with  wholesome  nourish- 
ing food,  and  with  drink  a  little  warmed. 

'Yhe  falling  down  of  the  calf-bed  frequently  happens  after  a  labori- 
ous birth  ;  though  some  cows  are  naturidly  ili3[)0ied  to  this  disorder. 
Where  this  is  apprehended,  it  is  directed  in  the  last  mentioned  work, 
that  the  cow  should  be  carefully  watched,  and  the  placenta,  or  clean- 
ing, removed  without  effusion  of  blood  :  afler  which  the  operator  may 
gently  replace  the  calf-bed,  taking  care  not  to  withdraw  his  hand  till 
the  former  begins  to  feel  warm.  The  following  draught  may  theif  be 
given  :  Of  baj'-berries,  pulverized  gentian-root,  and  corriander-seeds, 
each  an  ounce;  of  aniseed  and  juniper-berries,  each  two  ounces  ;  to- 
gether with  half  a  pound  of  treacle,  and  the  whole  put  into  three  pintfi 
of  strong  beer.  After  this,  it  is  advisable  to  lead  the  beast  gently 
down  a  hill,  if  one  be  near,  which  will  assist  much  in  placing  thecalf- 
l>ed  in  its  proper  place,  and  render  the  application  of  stays  to  the 
womb  unnecessary.  Where  the  calf-l>ed,  however,  comes  down,  and 
no  immediate  aid  can  be  had,  the  parts  exposed  should  be  laid  on, 
and  kept  covered  with  a  linen  cloth  ;  and  when  replaced,  bathed  with 
a  mixture  of  new  milk  and  spirits ;  alter  which  the  above  treatment 
may  be  pursued. 

Some  cows  have  a  peculiar  shape  of  the  binder  parts  which  tends  to 
produce  this  malady  ;  and  in  such  ca?e.  it  is  perhaps  difficult  to  pre- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  169 

Vent  it,  unless  it  can  be  done  by  keeping  their  hinder  paHs  higher 
\han  usual,  while  confined  to  their  stalls,  about  the  period  of  ges- 
tation. 

The  pxierperal  fever  is  caused  by  taking  cold  while  calving.  Cows 
thus  affected  should  have  housing  and  good  treatment,  as  has  been 
directed  in  other  cases,  and  the  head  should  be  placed  highest,  in  or- 
tfer  to  assist  the  natural  discharges.  In  other  respects  they  should  be 
treated  as  in  cases  of  violent  colds,  except  that  no  blood  should  be 
taken,  unless,  perhaps,  in  violent  cases,  and  then  only  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  disorder. 

Close  attention  should  be  paid  to  cows,  as  well  as  to  the  females  of 
other  kinds  of  cattle,  about  their  periods  of  gestation.  They  often 
then  stand  in  need  of  some  skilful  aids,  which,  if  rendered  in  due  sea- 
son, may  save  their  lives ;  and  which  if  not  thus  afforded,  may  be  of 
essential  loss  to  the  owner. 

Calves  are  also  liable  to  some  diseases,  and  in  some  countries,  to 
such  as  do  not  prevail  in  others.  In  this,  it  is  believed,  they  are  sub- 
ject to  but  few.  One,  however,  which  frequently  attacks  them  is 
looseness  or  scouring.  It  is  sometimes  caused  by  their  having  the 
milk  of  the  dam  too  soon;  sometimes  by  too  frequent  changes  of  the 
milk  which  is  given  it.  One  method  of  cure  is  to  stint  the  animal  of 
its  food,  and  give  it  once  or  twice  while  fasting,  a  hard  boiled  egg» 
mashed  fine  and  well  mixed  with  its  milk.  Another  directs  that  pow- 
dered chalk,  mixed  with  wheat  flour,  and  made  into  balls  with  gin, 
(brandy  would  seem  to  be  better,)  be  given  the  animal  as  a  safe 
medicine. 

Calves  are  also  liable  to  coMs,  in  which  case  they  should  have  a 
treatment  similar  to  older  neat  cattle. 

In  the  foregoing  observations,  which  are  rather  miscellaneous  in 
point  of  form,  no  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  various  terms  which 
many  English  farmers  and  graziers  apply  to  cattle  of  different  kinds, 
ages,  and  conditions,  further  than  such  terms  are  usual  in  this  country. 
We  have  plain  English  enough  for  every  purpose  of  this  kind ;  and 
there  is  no  need  of  farmers  having  a  vocabulary  for  cattle,  con- 
sisting of  barbarous  words,  which  none  but  themselves  would  be  like- 
ly to  understand. 

NEW  HORSE-HOEING  HUSBANDRY.  In  the  year  1731, 
Mr.  Tu!!,  an  ingenious  farmer  of  Great-Britain,  published  a  book  un- 
der this  title,  and  aftei wards  further  supplementary  essays  on  the 

0<> 


170  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

same  subject,  the  object  of  which  was  to  introduce  a  new"  system  ti^ 
husbandry,  particularly  in  the  culture  of  wheat.  His  method  is  this  r 
The  ground  is  ploughed  into  ridges  of  about  five,  six,  or  seven  feet 
wide,  and  then  smoothed  with  the  harrow ;  then  the  seed  is  sown  in 
straight  lines  by  a  drill  in  small  furrows,  about  two  inches  deep;  two 
of  these  furrows  being  placed  together  at  the  distance  of  about  nine 
inches,  with  au  interval  between  these  and  the  next  two  of  about  two 
feet;  so  that  a  horse-hoe,  or  a  horse-plough  can  be  run  between  them. 
As  the  seeds  are  dropped  by  the  drill-plough,  they  are  covered  by 
little  harrows,  which  are  fastened  to  the  plough,  and  follow  after  it. 
The  horse-hoe  has  already  been  mentioned ;  it  is  the  invention  of  Mr. 
TuU  ;  but  1  imagine  the  one  horse  plough  is  just  as  good.  After  the 
plants  of  wheat  have  got  to  a  proper  size  in  the  fall,  the  horse-hoe,  or 
plough,  is  run  close  to  the  plants,  on  each  side  of  the  double  rows,  and 
the  furrows  are  turned  from  them  ;  and  thus,  Mr.  Tull  says,  the  grow- 
ing grain  should  be  left  during  winter;  it  being,  by  this  process,  laid 
so  dry,  that  it  will  be  in  no  danger  of  being  thrown  out  of  ground  by 
the  winter  frosts. 

Early  in  the  spring  the  earth  is  to  be  turned  to  the  rows,  then  in 
May,  from  them,  and  in  June  to  them  again.  Some  weeds  which  will 
rise  between  the  double  rows  and  round  the  stalks,  must  be  taken  out 
by  hand. 

This  culture,  Mr.  Tull  says,  is  equally  well  applied  to  barley,  anrt 
some  other  kinds  of  grain.  For  barley,  it  has  been  found  to  answer 
very  well  here;  but  for  wheat,  in  particular,  it  will  not  answer.  It 
makes  this  grain  grow  so  rank  and  thrifty,  and  continue  so  much  be- 
yond the  usual  time  in  the  green  state,  that  it  generally  becomes 
blasted  or  mildewed.  Probably  the  same  fate  would,  in  some  mea- 
sure, attend  this  kind  of  culture  with  regard  to  rye,  if  a  culture  so  ex- 
pensive could,  in  this  country,  be  atTorded  to  that  grain. 

Mr.  TulTs  leading  principle  is,  that  fr€(juent  ploughings  have  the 
same  effect  on  lands  as  manuring;  and  this,  in  general,  is  believed  tO' 
be  correct  tl>ough  not  e(iually  in  all  soils ;  that  by  this  constant  plough- 
ing or  horse-hoeing,  the  lands  will  be  sutficiently  and  constantly  ma- 
nured ;  that  soils  not  very  rich  can,  in  this  way,  be  made  to  produce 
very  large  cro[>s ;  and  what  is  sometimes  important,  they  can  thus  be 
made  to  produce  the  same  crops  every  year;  as  the  ground  is  plough- 
ed up  again  as  soon  as  the  grown  crop  has  been  harvested. 

Although  the  husbandry  of  Mr.  Tull  will  probably  never  come  into 
general  use  in  Great-Britain,  where,  from  the  coolness  of  the  sum-. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  171 

men  it  will  always  answer  best ;  yet,  the  drill  plough,  and  the  me- 
thod recommended  by  him,  of  ploughiug  among  plants,  are  each 
founded  in  an  accurate  knowledge  of  good  husbandry,  and  the  latter 
will  ever  be  found  best  in  the  cultivation  of  many  plants ;  such  as 
beans,  Indian  corn,  carrots,  cabbages,  potatoes,  Sec. ;  and,  no  doubt, 
barley,  and  probably,  some  other  kiuds  of  grain  may  in  this  manner  be 
successfully  cultivated. 

Mr.  Dean  says,  he  has  cultivatetl  barley  in  this  way  and  never  had 
less  than  forty  bushels  to  the  acre. 

NURSERY.  It  is  not  advisable  to  make  a  nursery  on  too  rich  a 
spot,  because  if  the  trees  be  afterwards  transplanted  into  poorer  ground 
they  will  not  thrive  so  well.  It  is  better  that  the  change  by  trans- 
planting, be  from  a  poorer  to  a  richer  soil.  A  gravelly  loam,  or  sandy 
loam,  should  be  preferred  for  a  nursery. 

Let  the  ground  be  ploughed  very  deeply,  early  in  the  fall,  and  be 
well  mellowed  ;  then  lay  the  seeds,  or  stones,  along  in  straight  rows, 
and  let  them  be  laid  plentifully,  in  order  that  enough  may  come  up. 
The  next  year  they  are  to  be  thinned,  so  as  to  stand  at  proper  dis- 
tances, and  the  ground  is  to  be  kept  hoed,  and  clear  of  weeds  and  grass. 
After  they  have  had  one  summer's  growth,  they  may  be  cut  oflf  near 
the  ground  for  grafting. 

•See  article  Grafting. 

Inoculation,  may  also,  at  this  growth,  be  successfully  performed 
on  them. 

See  article  LvocrLATiox. 

They  should  afterwards  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  and  grass,  by  hoe- 
iog  among  them,  until  they  are  transplanted. 

Where  snows  fall  deep,  they  are  apt  to  bend  down  the  young  trees, 
and  make  them  crooked;  the  best  remedy  for  this,  is,  to  drive  down 
stakes,  proportinate  to  the  height  of  the  young  trees,  and  tie  them  to 
these  in  such  manner,  that  the  bark  will  not  be  injured  by  the  string, 
nor  by  rubbing  against  the  stakes.  This  is  to  be  done  after  graft- 
ing them. 

Some  sow  the  seeds,  or  stones,  on  a  small  spot,  and  afterwards 
plant  them  out  in  the  nursery.  This  may  be  best  for  stone  fruit :  but 
for  apple-trees,  sowing  the  seeds  in  the  pumace  is  the  easiest  methodr 
and  answers  as  well  as  any  ;  and  for  other  seeds,  or  for  acorns,  if  oaks 
are  to  be  raised  in  a  nursery,  the  above  method  will  answer  very 
well. 


172  FARMEH^S  ASSISTANT. 

Many  trees  are  propagated  from  the  slips,  or  cuttings,  Buch  as  iht 
Lomliardy  ))oplar,  mulhtrry,  and  others. 

For  raising  apple- trees  in  this  way,  see  article  Slip?. 


O. 


OAK;  CQuercus.)  European  writers  mention  many  more  species 
of  the  oak  than  we  have  iu  this  country.  We  have  the  live-oak,  which 
is  a  native  of  the  southern  states;  the  black-jack,  which  is  found  in  the 
middle  stales;  the  black ■  oak  i  the  chesnut-oak  ;  the  shrub- oak  ;  and 
the  red-oak,  of  which  hotanists  reckon  three  varieties;  the  red,  the 
yellow,  and  the  swamp-oak.  All  the  dififerent  species,  except  the  two 
first,  are  to  he  found  in  each  of  the  states. 

The  white-oak.  which  grows  in  moist  uplands,  is  generally  of  the 
most  rapid  growth,  and  the  firmest  timber ;  and,  therefore,  such 
grounds  ou^ht  to  be  chosen  for  cultivating  it,  as  it  is  the  oak  that  h 
generally  preferred  for  cultivation. 

For  an  approved  method  of  cultivating  it,  see  article  Forests. 

The  oak  is  also  cultivated  in  nurseries,  and  then  transplanted  at 
pleasure. 

Mr.  Forsyth,  in  speaking  of  those  which  are  raised  in  nurseries^ 
tays,  it  is  a  generally  received  opinion,  that  when  an  oak  looses  its 
tap  root  in  transplanting,  it  nevtr  produces  another;  but  this  he  found 
to  be  a  mistake.  He  transplanteil  a  be*l  of  oak  plants  into  a  fresh  bed, 
cutting  off  the  tap  roots  near  the  small  fibres  shootini;  from  them;  the 
second  year  afterwards  he  headed  dfiwn  one  half  of  the  plants,  and  the 
other  half  he  left  to  nature. 

For  his  method  of  heading  down,  see  article  Frtit-Tbees. 

During  the  first  season,  thos-e  which  were  headed  down  made  shoola 
fix  feet  in  length,  and  covered  the  tops  of  the  old  stems,  leaving  only 
a  slight  cicatrix,  and  produced  new  tap  roots  upwards  of  two  feet  long 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  173 

The  others  which  were  not  headed  down,  did  not  grow  to  one  fourth 
of  this  length.  He  iurther  says,  that  when  the  former  were  eighteen 
feet  higli,  the  latter  were  only  five.  This  case  is  cited  by  him  as  a 
striking  instance  of  the  superiority  of  his  method  of  heading  doivn  over 
the  common  method  of  managing  trees. 

His  method  of  curing,  or  restoring  old  hollow  and  diseased  trees, 
which  are  partly  dead,  is  also  generally  applicable  to  the  oak. 

For  the  method  of  doing  this,  see  also  article  Fruit-Trees. 

The  farmer  who  finds  his  stock  of  good  oak  timber  growing  more 
scarce,  should  turn  his  attention  to  the  means  of  replenishing  his  farm 
with  this  valuable  timber.  When  planted  on  little  heights  and  de- 
clivities, he  may  find  the  growth  of  oaks  ornamental  to  his  farm,  as 
well  as  profitable,  by  raising  its  value  ;  and  it  may  afford  him  much 
pleasure,  in  his  more  advanced  years,  to  observe  their  increased  di- 
mensions, Avhile  in  his  mind  he  rolls  back  the  wheels  of  time  to  that 
period  when  they  were  but  acorns  in  his  hand. 

The  bark  of  the  white  oak  is  best  for  tanning.  The  inner  bark  of 
it  when  reduced  to  a  powder,  and  administered  in  the  manner  of  the 
Peruvian  bark,  answers  nearly  the  same  purpose,  but  the  doses  must 
be  larger. 

The  juice  of  the  galls  of  the  shrub-oak,  is  excellent  for  making  the 
best  ink,  and  is  also  a  component  part  in  black  dies.  They  are  form- 
ed by  an  insect's  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  tender  rind  of  the  twigs  of 
the  tree ;  and  through  the  wound  thus  made,  this  black  juice  oozes« 
and  forms  a  tumor,  sometimes  as  large  as  a  walnut,  in  the  heart  of 
which  the  young  insect  is  to  be  found. 

OATS :  (Avena.)  The  clear  profit  which  can  be  obtained  from 
a  crop  of  oats  is  at  best  but  small.  They  exhaust  the  soil,  and  render 
it  unfit  for  bearing  a  good  succeeding  crop  of  wheat.  Their  principal 
recommendation  is,  that  they  are  an  excellent  food  for  horses,  par- 
ticularly in  travelling,  being  of  a  loosening  nature,  while  most  other 
grains  are  binding. 

Carrots  and  potatoes  maj'  be  made  good  substitutes  for  oats ;  and  of 
these,  an  acre  will  produce  an  abundance,  without  esseulial  injury  to 
the  soil. 

Oats,  like  most  other  kinds  of  grain,  require  the  ground  to  be  pretty 
well  prepared  and  to  be  in  good  heart.  It  is  a  mistaken  notion,  (hat 
they  will  do  well  with  indifferent  culture.  If  the  ground  be  suitable 
for  gypsum,  that  manure  applied  to  the  crop  will  greatly  increase  it. 
Two  bushels  are  generally  sowed  to  the  acre,  but  whether  «o  mw\\ 


174  PARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

seed  be  necessary,  is  doubtful.     1  have  seen  very  heary  cropf  raisej, 
where  but  one  bushel  to  the  acre  was  sown. 

A  moist  soil  and  a  moist  climate  is  best  for  oats ;  in  order,  there- 
fore, that  they  may  not  be  cut  short  by  the  early  droughts  which  fre- 
quently prevail,  it  is  advisable  to  sow  them  as  early  as  the  ground  can 
be  well  prepared.  They  will,  however,  do  rery  well  when  sowed 
late,  provided  they  have  moisture  suflBcient  during  the  beat  of 
summer. 

Oats,  like  most  other  grains,  "will  degenerate,  if  the  seed  be  not  fre- 
quently changed. 

OLIVE  ;  (CHia.)  This  tree  is  famous  for  the  production  of  oil. 
It  thrives  well  in  Italy  and  the  southern  parts  of  France,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved, it  would  grow  well  in  some  of  the  southern  states.  The  winters 
here  are  too  severe  for  it.  We  have,  however,  a  plant  which  is  said 
to  be  an  excellent  substitute. 
S(e  article  5i>-Flower. 

It  has  been  found,  in  France,  that  immemngthe  olive  frvit  in  vine- 
gar, before  pressing  out  the  oil,  will  improve  the  quality,  and  add  a 
tenth  more  to  the  quantity. 

ONION  ;  fjllium.j  In  the  northern  parts  of  this  state,  onions 
may  be  raisetl  on  soils  which  are  suitable,  at  the  rate  of  500  bushels 
to  the  acre,  and  perhaps  more.  They  require  a  warm,  rich,  mellow 
foil;  and  if  it  be  somewhat  s^rwly,  it  uill  be  the  better.  They  will 
grow  year  after  year  in  the  same  soil. 

To  prepare  the  ground  at  first  for  this  crop,  it  is  well  to  plougn  it 
in  the  fall,  but  not  deep.  It  is  said,  that  they  will  grow  well,  yearly, 
©n  the  same  soil,  without  ploughing  or  digging,  but  by  merely  loosen, 
ing  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  two  inches  by  a  heavy  iron  rake.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  the  ground  ought  to  be  well  mellowed  on  the  top,  and 
then  marked  out  into  beds  about  four  feet  wide ;  then  with  the  end  of 
a  stick  draw  lines  across  the  beds,  about  ten  inches  apart  and  strew 
the  seeds  evenly  along  in  these,  and  cover  them  over  by  hand.  They 
may  also  be  sowed  with  a  little  band  drill.  For  fear  the  seeds  may 
not  all  come  up,  it  b  beet  to  sow  them  pretty  thick,  and  if  they  come 
up  too  thickly,  they  can  afterwards  be  thinned.  Some  jdant  then)  in 
boles,  about  ten  inches  distant  from  each  other,  in  straight  rows,  each 
way  like  hills  of  corn,  putting  about  eight  seeds  in  each  hole.  This 
method  is  attentled  with  the  least  trouble  in  weeding,  as  the  wee»Jing 
boe  can  t>e  run  each  way  between  the  bunches  while  growing,  though 
it  is  believed,  that  the  other  method  will  give  the  greatest  prodact 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  175 

After  the  plants  have  come  up,  all  that  is  requisite  is  to  be  vigilant  in 
destroying  the  weeds  by  the  hoe  and  hand-weeding,  as  often  as  they 
appear.  It  is  essential  to  keep  the  weeding  hoe  well  ground,  as  it  will 
not  cut  off  the  weeds  unless  it  be  kept  sharp.  Its  edge  should  be  of 
well  hardened  steel. 

When  the  stalks  have  become  dead  and  dry,  the  onions  will  have 
ceased  to  grow,  and  then  they  should  be  pulled,  and  laid  on  the  ground 
some  days,  to  dry  and  harden,  before  they  are  carried  in.  Those 
w  hich  have  thick  necks  and  the  bulbous  part  small,  and  are  common- 
ly called  scallions,  may  as  well  be  left  in  the  ground  during  the  winter, 
as  they  will  continue  green  till  that  time ;  they  will  stand  the  frosts, 
and  the  next  spring  will  grow  in  their  places  to  be  good  onions;  or 
they  may  then  be  taken  up  and  set  in  a  bed  made  for  that  purpose. 
At  all  events,  they  are  good  for  nothing  without  a  second  year's 
growth. 

There  is  a  kind  of  onion,  which,  instead  of  bearing  seed,  bears 
bunches  of  small  onions  on  its  top,  and  these  being  preserved  and  set 
out  the  next  year,  grow  to  be  large,  and  their  tops  again  bear  the 
small  ones.  Probably  these  are  best  calculated  for  more  southerly 
climates,  though  they  grow  very  well  in  this. 

In  the  fall,  after  the  onions  have  been  dried,  and  the  tops  cut  off, 
they  are  to  be  carried  in  and  spread  over  a  t!oor;  and,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  cold  weather,  put  into  casks,  and  set  in  a  place  where 
Ihey  will  not  freeze.  A  little  freezing,  however,  will  not  essentially 
injure  them.  The  place  where  they  are  kept,  should  not,  at  all 
events,  be  too  warm  anil  moist,  as  this  wil^  cause  them  to  rot.  If 
they  be  kept  where  they  are  somewhat  frozen,  they  should  not  be  dis- 
turbed in  their  frozen  state;  but  the  better  way  is,  not  to  suffer  them 
to  be  frozen,  but  to  keep  them  in  a  temirerature  a  little  above  the 
freezing  point. 

Those  which  are  slnjjped  from  New-England^  for  market,  are  usually 
tied  up  in  wisps  of  straw,  and  if  they  be  hung  up  in  this  way,  they 
will,  perhaps,  keep  longer  than  any  other.  If  they  incline  to  sprout, 
sear  the  roots  with  a  hot  iron,  which  will  stop  their  growth. 

To  obtain  seed  from  the  onions,  plant  them  in  the  spring  in  bed?, 
about  nine  inches  apart.  Take  the  largest  and  soundest  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  keep  them  clear  of  weeds  while  growing.  When  they  have 
come  to  a  head,  tie  them  loosely  to  stakes  drove  down  for  that  pur- 
pose; otherwise  they  will  fall  to  the  ground,  and  then  the  seeds  will 
not  come  to  perfection. 


176  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Soot  is  said  to  be  the  best  manure  lor  this  root,  aud  aslies  are  also 
said  to  t>e  good.  It  dung  be  use<l,  it  should  be  such  as  is  well  rotted, 
and  in  which  there  is  no  seeds  of  weeds. 

Some  practice  beating  down  the  tops  when  the  onions  have  acquir- 
ed a  pretty  good  size,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  roots  grow  taster; 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  be  any  service  to  them. 

OKCHARD.  Farmers  olten  make  use  ol  their  most  level  pieces 
of  land  for  planting  their  apple-orchards,  l)ui  this  is  sometimes  bad 
management,  as  such  grounds  should  be  reserved  lor  the  plough.  Un- 
even grounds  ought  rather  to  be  applied  to  this  purj»ose,  if  the  soil  be 
good.  The  best  soil  is  a  fertile  sandy  loam,  or  gravelly  loam.  A 
fertile  sandy  soil  will  do  much  better  than  a  stiff  soil,  though  it  be  ever 
90  rich. 

The  first  step  toward  making  a  good  orchard  is  to  prepare  a  nursery 
of  the  best  grafted  fruit,  of  such  kinds  as  are  suitable  to  the  different 
uses  to  which  they  are  to  beapnliei'.  Cyder  being  the  principal,  the 
scions  for  grafting  should  be  taken  from  trees  which  have  the  follow- 
ing qualifications;  that  bear  every  year  and  plentifully,  of  apples  that 
ripen  in  the  right  time  for  making  this  liquor,  and  which  are  mellow, 
of  a  rich  juice,  and  make  a  fine  tasted  cider.  Trees  possessing  all 
these  qualifications  in  the  highest  degree,  are  not  perhaps  to  be  found 
in  every  orchard  :  but  they  should  be  sought  after;  and,  wherever 
found,  they  alone  should  be  used  for  obtaining  a  supply  of  scions. 
The  mere  grafting  indiscriminately  from  other  trees,  without  any  re- 
gard to  the  goodness  of  their  fruit  is  of  no  use  to  an  orchard.  Trees 
may  be  found  which  yield,  on  an  average,  forty  bushels  of  good  cider 
apples  every  year,  which  is  sufficient  to  make  five  barrels  of  cider: 
Sixty  of  such  trees  may  stand  on  an  acre,  and  would  give  three  hun- 
dred barrels  of  cider;  which  is,  probablj-,  trn  times  the  product  that 
is  usual!}'  obtained  from  that  extent  of  ground.  Say,  however,  that 
trees  can  be  selected,  which,  after  they  have  grown  to  a  good  size, 
will,  on  an  averaee,  each  yield,  yearly,  twenty  bushels  of  apples  ; 
this  will  he  sufficient  to  shew  the  vast  importance  of  grafting  from 
the  best  selected  fruit-trees,  in  preference  to  planting  orchards  in 
the  common  way.  ' 

It  is  well  for  the  farmer  to  have  four  or  five  different  kinds  of  cider 
apples  in  his  orchard,  and  some  that  ripen  sooner  than  others,  in  order 
that  he  may  have  more  time  allowed  him  for  making  all  his  ciiler; 
but  it  is  believed  to  be  much  the  best  not  to  mix  different  kinds  of  ap- 
ples together  in  making  it. 
See  article  Cidfk. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  177 

^ht  sattie  pains  ougiit  to  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  scions  from 
proper  trees,  to  afford  yearly,  a  sufficient  stock  of  winter  apples.  The 
like  attention  should  be  paid  to  having  a  proper  selection  of  early  ap- 
ples for  summer  use. 

Some  very  fine  apples,  of  diflferent  kinds,  for  cider,  and  other  uses, 
are  extensively  cultivated  in  New-Jersey,  which  may  be  found  well 
Worth  the  attention  of  the  farnrer  in  procuring  scions  from  the  differ* 
-ent  trees. 

In  planting  an  orchard,  it  is  advisable  to  set  the  trees  pretty  close* 
ly  ;  and  if  they  are  found,  when  they  are  well  grown,  to  be  too  close, 
(he  poorest  ones  may  be  then  taken  down  to  afford  more  room  for  the 
test.  The  distance,  therefore,  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet,  be- 
tween the  trees,  will  not  be  found  too  close  at  first.  For  the  first  five 
or  six  years,  the  ground  should  be  well  manured  and  cultivated  with 
hoed  crops;  taking  care  to  have  the  rows  of  trees  in  a  line  with  the 
different  rows  of  these  crops,  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  plough. 
The  ground  about  the  roots  should  be  kept  clear  of  grass  and  weeds, 
and  the  plough  should  not  come  so  near  as  to  injure  them.  A  strong 
growth  of  grass  immediately  round  every  kind  of  young  fruit-tree,  is 
injurious  to  their  growth,  and  therefore,  should  never  be  sufiiered. 

Mr.  Forsyth  obs/»rres,  that  much  the  greater  part  of  the  wood  of 
fruit-trees,  grows  on  the  north  side;  and,  that  therefore,  the  young 
trees  when  set  out  in  the  orchard,  should  be  set  with  the  same  side  to 
(he  north  as  when  they  stood  in  the  nursery.  For  this  purpose,  the 
north  side  of  the  tree  may  be  marked,  before  it  is  taken  up. 

Farmers  should  attend  more  to  the  cultivation  of  the  pear-tree  ia 
their  orchards.  They  are,  perhaps,  as  profitable  for  cultivation  as  the 
apple-tree;  they  suit  a  stiff  soil  better  ;  they  may  be  equally  improv- 
ed by  grafting  ;  they  are  less  liable  to  the  ravages  of  insects ;  and  the 
liquor  called  perry,  which  is  made  from  them,  is,  perhapss,  in  no  way 
inferior  to  cider,  and  is  capable  of  the  same  improvements,  by  refine- 
ing,  freezing,  «fcc.  The  cultivation  of  peach  orchards,  extensively, 
where  the  climate  is  suitable,  is  also  Avell  worth  the  attention  of  the 
farmer ;  besides  their  being  fine  for  eating,  and  for  various  family  uses, 
they  are  excellent  for  feeding  and  even  fatting  hogs,  and  the  liquor 
made  from  them,  when  distilled,  has  considerable  resemblance  in. 
taste  to  brandy.  They  are  at  the  same  time  easily  cultivated,  and 
require  but  little  ground.  The  best  kinds,  however,  like  the  apple.. 
wid  pear,  are  only  to  be  obtained  by  inoculation. 

f^c  articles  Inoculation  and  PF..\CH-TRr.E. 

23 


i7ft  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

The  practice  of  pruning  large  apple-trees  so  severely  as  'n  done  by 
many  fanners,  is  absurd ;  as  such  a  profuse  mangling  of  the  limi's  can- 
not but  lessen  the  quantity  of  fruit  and  injure  the  tree.  The  practice 
Is  not  warranted  by  any  writer  on  the  subject.  The  suckers,  the  dead 
limbs,  and  those  which  rub  against  another,  or  that  cross  each  other, 
should  be  taken  away  ;  but  not  many  more.  The  proper  time  for 
doing  this  is  early  in  the  spring,  or  late  in  the  fall. 

I  know  a  farmer  who  has  a  beautiful  thrifty  young  orchard,  grow- 
ing on  a- fertile  sandy  soil,  who  every  spring  whitewashes,  with  lime, 
the  bodies  and  some  distance  up  the  limbs  of  his  trees  ;.  this  is  believ- 
ed to  be  effectual  in  keeping  off  all  inseetsand  preventing  the  growth 
of  moss.  Mr.  Forsyth  recommends,  for  the  same  purpose,  a  mixture 
of  fresh  cow-dung,  old  urine  and  soap-suds. 

It  sometimes  happens,  that  wood-packers  will  fall  upon  apple-trees 
and  pick  the  bark  full  of  holes,  which  \'^ry  much  injure?,  and  iume- 
times  kills  the  trees.  It  is  said,  that  cow-dung  plaistered  round  the 
tree  will  cause  them  to  desist. 

Sheep  sometimes  get  into  orchards,  in  the  winter,  and  eat  off  the 
bark  from  the  trees.  In  such  cases,  if  they  have  not  cut  off  quite 
round^lhe  tree,  Mr.  Forsyth's  composition  might  he  successfully  used 
in  giving  it  a  new  coat;  minding  in  the  first  instance  to  prepare  the 
tree,  agreeably  to  his  directions,  for  receiving  the  wash. 

See  article  Frvit-Tree?. 

To  make  the  orchard  complete,  says  Mr.  Forsyth,  there  ought  to 
be,  in  addition  to  the  apples,  a  due  assortment  of  pears,  plumbs,  cher- 
ries, quinces,  6cc.  &:c.  He  also  recommends,  planting  a  row  of  nut- 
trees  round  the  whole,  as  being  not  only  ornamental,  but  highly  use- 
ful in  breaking  off  the  high  winds. 

OVERFLOWING  of  the  GALL.     See  article  Neat-Cattlf., 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  179 


P. 


fATNTING  OF  BUILDINGS,  &c.  For  painting  the  roofs  of 
buildings,  Mr.  Patterson,  of  New-Jersey,  has,  some  years  since,  given 
the  following  directions,  which  have  been  highly  approved,  as  the 
best  composition  known  for  preserving  the  roofs  of  houses  ;  as  it  is 
found,  that  it  hardens  by  time,  and  is  an  effectual  preventative  against 
the  roof  taking. fire  from  the  sparks  of  the  chimney. 

"  Take  three  parts  of  air  slacked  lime,  two  of  wood-ashes,  and  one 
of  fine  sand  ;  sift  these  through  a  fine  sieve,  and  add  as  much  linseed 
oil  as  will  bring  it  to  a  consistence  for  working  with  a  painters  brush. 
Great  care  must  he  tak-en  to  mix  it  perfectly."  I  believe  grinding  it 
as  a  paint  would  be  an  improvement ;  two  eoats  are  necessary ;  the 
first  rather  thin,  the  second  as  thick  a^  can  be  conveniently  worked. 
Painting  of  wooden  buildings,  of  every  kind,  is  not  only  ornamental, 
but  the  owner  is  weU  repaid  for  this  extra  expense,  by  the  greater 
durability  which  the  paint  gives  to  t?iem.  The  wooden  fences  also, 
which  are  intended  to  be  ornamental,  round,  and  near  builtUngs, 
should  never  be  destitute  of  a  good  coat  of  paint. 

A  patent  wash  may  be  had  of  Oliver  AVhipple,  of  Columbia  Dis=^ 
trict,  which  is  very  cheap,  having  no  oil  in  it,  and  which  answers 
pretty  well  for  coarse  outside  ^lainting. 
The  patentee  says  it  will  last  six  years. 

PARSNIP;  (Pastinaca.J  The  cultivation  proper  for  parsnip?, 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  carrots,  and  the  same  kind  of  soil  and  ma- 
nures are  suitable  for  each.  They,  however,  require  the  soil  to  be 
very  deeply  dug  ;  eighteen  inches  is  not  too  deep.  They  are  full  as 
good  for  feeding  and  fatting  cattle  as  carrots,  and  are  about  equally 
productive.  They  might  be  cultivated  to  advantage  for  feeding  in 
the  spring,  when  the  stoct  of  carrots  have  become  exhausted ;  as  the 
best  way  to  keep  them  over  winter  is  to  let  them  remain  in  the 
ground  during  that  season.  When  dug  in  the  fall  for  family  use,  the 
best  way  to  keep  them  through  the  winter,  is,  to  bury  them  in  dry 
sand.  In  spring,  those  left  in  the  ground  and  wanted  for  that  use, 
should  be  taken  up  before  they  begin  to  sprout. 


im  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Probably  the  farmer  would  find  the  culture  of  parsnips  ue^riy  a» 
profitable  as  that  of  carrots,  particularly  for  spring  feeding.  They  arc 
planted  in  beds  and  sown  or  drilled  in  rows  across  the  beds,  having 
the  rows  about  ten  inches  apart.  The  plants  in  the  rows  should,  at 
the  last  hoeing,  be  thinned  to  the  distance  of  about  four  inches.  Those 
which  are  pulled  out  in  thinning  will  then  be  good  food  for  swine. 

Freezing  does  not  injure  this  root;  and,  therefore,  those  which  are 
kept  in  winter  for  family  use,  had  better  be  kept  in  rather  a  frozen 
state  than  otherwise;  becaase,  if  kept  too  warm,  they  will  sprout,  and 
this  spoils  them  for  eating. 

PASTURE.  The  subdivisions  of  land  that  is  kept  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  pasturing,  shouW  depend  as  well  upon  its  fertility,  as  u|>on 
the  number  of  the  different  kinds  of  cattle  that  are  to  be  fed  on  it. 
Fifty  acres  of  land  that  would  only  feed  three  cows  during  the  season 
would  not  pay  the  expense  of  subdividing.  0«  the  contrary,  if  the 
farmer  has  but  three  cows,  and  has  three  acres  of  the  best  pasture 
land,  he  ought  to  divide  this  into  at  least  two  parts,  so  that  the  one 
can  be  grewine  while  the  other  is  feeding.  Again,  if  he  keeps  twen- 
ty cows,  and  has  twenty  acres  of  the  best  pasture,  he  will  find  his  ac- 
count in  having  it  divided  into  four  parts,  and  pasturing  each  enclo- 
sure three  or  four  days  alternately.  In  this  way  pasture  lands  will 
keep  at  leaat  one  fourth  more  of  cattle,  and  will  keep  them  much  bet- 
ter, than  if  the  whole  pasture  were  in  one  field- 
Not  only  a  change  of  pasture  is  beneficial,  but  a  change  of  different 
kinds  of  cattle  in  the  same  pastures  should  be  attended  to.  Thus  let 
the  milch-cows  take  the  first  cropping  of  each  field,  in  rotation;  then 
the  horses  and  oxen,  and  the  sheep  next ;  in  this  way  the  last  feeder 
will  eat  much  grass  that  has  been  rejected  by  the  former. 

Wet,  miry  spots  in  pastures  should  be  drained  off,  either  by  open, 
or  hollow  drains ;  for  by  this  means,  the  grass  in  such  spots  w  ill  be 
doubled  in  quantity,  and  much  improved  in  quality.  Bushes  should 
be  cut  out  and  destroyed ;  thistles,  and  other  noxious  weeds  should  be 
mowed  down  before  they  go  to  seed,  and  every  means  taken  to  eradi- 
cate them. 

It  is  never  advisable  to  pasture  lands  too  closely,  particularly  in  the 
fall,  as  this  only  tends  to  diminish  the  quantity  the  next  year.  In  this 
respect  it  is  the  same  with  pastures  as  with  meadows ;  the  closer  they 
are  cropped  the  less  w  ill  be  the  next  year's  supply. 

Where  the  pasture  has  yielded  much  feed,  there  will,  of  course,  be 
much  dung  dropped  ;  to  heat  it  to  pieces,  and  scatter  it  over  the  field. 
v\l\  tend  constantly  to  recruit  it= 


FARMER*S  ASSISTANT.  181 

Sheep  require  no  water  in  their  pastures ;  it  is  also  the  better  opi- 
nion, that  calves  should  have  none ;  and,  generally  speaking,  that 
horses  should  have  little  or  none,  except  when  they  are  worked.  The 
effect  of  this  treatment  is,  that  they  become  habituated  to  lie  by  ia 
the  heat  of  the  day,  and  feed  at  night,  when  the  dew  is  on  the  grass, 
which  renders  it  more  nourishing.  Cows,  however,  ought  to  have " 
water;  and  where  their  pastures  afford  none,  the  better  way  is  to  sink 
a  well  at  that  spot  where  the  pasture  lots  corner  together ;  and  then 
with  a  little  machinery,  which  will  be  but  a  trifle  of  expense,  suffi- 
cient of  water  may  usually  be  raised  every  day  by  the  winds,  for  the 
purpose  of  filling  the  troughs  as  often  as  they  are  emptied.  The 
methods  of  doing  this  are  so  simple  and  easy,  that  they  are  hardly 
necessary  to  be  described. 

See  further,  article  Wind-Machinery. 

In  place  of  wells,  however,  artificial  ponds  are  recommended  by 
Ecme. 

See  article  Ponds. 

In  pastures  which  are  on  side  hills,  water  may  be  easily  obtained  in 
another  way ;  that  is,  by  digging  horizontally  into  the  hill  till  you 
come  to  it,  and  then  carrying  it  out  in  a  pipe,  or  conductor,  made  for 
the  purpose.  Another  method  is  to  dig  a  well  on  a  steep  part  of  the 
hill,  and  place  a  syphon  in  it,  with  so  small  a  pipe  that  it  will  not  let 
off  the  water  fast  enough  to  exhaust  the  water  in  the  well. 

Another  method  of  making  a  well,  as  recommended  by  M.  Cadit 
de  \  aux,  is  to  bore  a  hole  into  the  earth,  with  an  augur  or  borer  made 
for  the  purpose,  until  sufficient  of  good  water  is  found.  If  that  which 
is  first  found  is  not  good,  bore  deeper,  until  you  come  to  better;  and 
bore  sufficiently  deep  to  afford  a  full  supply.  Let  the  hole  be  about 
eight  cr  nine  inches  in  diameter.  As  the  augur  gets  filled  with  earth 
it  is  taken  up,  emptied,  and  let||own  again.  After  the  hole  is  made. 
a  wooden  tube  is  inserted  in  it,  and  the  water  is  raised  by  pumpino-. 

This  is  a  very  cheap  and  safe  method  of  making  wells,  and  migh^ 
be  advantageously  performed  where  the  earth  is  free  of  stones  ami 
rocks. 

Lastly,  as  a  matter  ef  ornament  and  of  profit,  let  your  pasture  lamb 
be  planted  with  some  useful  trees,  and  probably,  lor  tliis  purpose,  the 
locust  will  be  found  the  best. 

Sec  article  Locust. 

The  sugar-maple  may  also  be  found  very  advantageous,  where  the 
soil  is  suitable  (o  it,  and  where  a  yearly  supply  of  maple  sugar  is  de- 
sired, which  will  be  found  an  article  of  no  small  profit. 


182  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

See  article  Sycamore. 

For  the  best  grasses  for  pastures,  see  article  Grasses. 

PASTURE  OF  PLANTS.  Every  plant  requires  a  gi?eu  quan- 
tity of  earth  to  Dourisb  it,  into  which  its  roots  extend  for  that  purj)ose; 
and  the  quantity  thus  required  is  called  the  requi-ite  pasture  of  the 
plant.  Some  require  more  earth  and  some  less.  Some  require  a 
greater  superficiai  extent  with  less  depth  ;  while  others  require  a 
greater  depth  with  less  superficial  extent.  For  instaoce,  a  plant  of 
Indian  corn  requires  a  superficial  extent,  of  say,  three  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  a  depth  of  six  inches  ;  while  a  root  of  the  beet,  carrot,  or 
parsnip  kind,  requires  a  superficial  extent  of,  perhaps,  only  twelve  in- 
ches in  circumference,  but  a  depth  of,  say,  fifteen  inches.  A  plant  of 
flax,  on  the  contrary,  will  not  require  more  thau  six  inches  in  circum- 
ference and  five  inches  in  depth. 

It  will  probably  be  found,  that  the  greater  depth  is  given  to  all 
plants,  the  less  circumference  they  will  require ;  that  the  roots  will, 
in  that  case,  shoot  further  downwards;  and,  therefore,  the  deeper  you 
plough,  the  thicker  you  may  sow.  This  is  is  a  matter  of  nice  calcu- 
lation, and  well  worth  the  attention  of  the  ingenious  farmer. 

In  order  to  illucidate  this,  the  proper  metho<l  is  to  try  various 
plants  in  beds  of  the  same  soil,  culture,  and  dimensions,  but  dug  of 
different  depths,  and  the  plants  set  at  different  distances,  and  then  the 
results  will  lead  to  the  truth.  Thus,  for  instance,  make  four  beds  of 
earrois,  which  shall  be  dug  equally  well  eight  inches  deep  ;  let  the 
roots  in  the  first  bed  stand  at  the  distance  of  four  inches  from  each 
other;  those  of  the  second  at  the  distance  of  six  ;  those  of  the  third 
at  the  distance  of ';ight ;  and  those  of  the  fourth  at  the  distance  of 
twelve  inches ;  and  then  lot  it  be  ascertained  which  bed  has  the  great- 
est weight  of  carrots.  In  the  meantime,  have  four  other  bedsduc  twelve 
inches  deep;  and  four  more  duj  eighteen  inches  deep  ;  and  plant  one 
of  each  of  them  at  the  respective  distances  above  mentioned,  and  as 
certain  what  are  the  results  of  each.  The  same  experiments  can  be 
tried  with  equal  exactness  on  most  other  plant?,  and  the  results  equal- 
ly well  ascertained. 

PEACH-TREE;  (Aviegdalus.)  Peaches  are  of  two  kinds,  the 
clear-stone  and  the  cling-stone  ;  but  there  are  good  varieties  of  each. 
The  same  sorts  can  only  be  raised  by  grafting  or  innoculatiou  ;  this 
may  be  on  apricots,  or  on  plum-trees,  and  will  make  the  grafted  trees 
longer  lived- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  183 

The  trees  should  have  a  warm, dry,  fertile  soil ;  a  sandy  loam  is  best. 
If  the  spot  where  they  are  planted  be  sheltered  from  the  northerly 
winds,  it  will  be  the  better. 

To  raise  the  young  trees,  take  stones  that  are  fully  ripe,  and  plant 
them  in  October,  they  will  come  up  and  grow  to  a  good  size  in  the 
course  of  the  summer.  They  are  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  while  ia 
the  nursery.  At  a  year's  growth  they  may  be  grafted,  or  ionoculated, 
and  after  two  summer's  growth,  they  may  then  be  transplanted.  This 
may  be  done  when  the  leaves  have  fallen  in  autumn,  or  in  the  spring. 
Take  plants  with  one  strong  clean  stem,  or  if  they  have  two,  cut  one 
away,  however  fair.  Let  the  downward  root  be  cut  ofiT,  in  order  that 
the  tree  derive  its  nourishment  from  earth  nigh  the  surface,  which  will 
make  the  fruit  less  crude  and  finer  tasted.  Be  careful  not  to  plant  the 
trees  too  deep,  for  this  is  injurious  to  all  fruit.  Let  the  pruning  of 
the  new  planted  trees  be  omitted  till  they  have  taken  root. 

Mr.  Forsyth  gives  some  particular  directions  for  training,  pruning, 
&c.  the  trees,  to  make  them  good  bearers;  all  of  which  may  be  well 
enough  for  the  climate  of  England,  but  does  not  seem  necessary  to  be 
observed  here.  Where  the  climate  is  suitable  for  peaches  in  this 
country,  that  is,  where  the  frosts  of  the  winters  do  not  kill  them,  they 
generally  bear  so  much  that  the  trees  are  frequently  broken  with  the 
fruit,  if  part  of  it  be  not  taken  off. 

Mr.  Forsyth  also  gives  a  list  of  the  best  peaches  raised  in  England, 
which  ripen  at  the  different  months  of  the  season  for  peaches;  but 
no  doubt,  this  country  is  capable  of  affording  varieties  equal,  and  per- 
haps superior,  if  sought  after. 

In  making  a  proper  selection  of  trees  from  which  to  graft,  or  inocu- 
late, a  due  regard  should  be  had  to  three  essentials  : 

1.  To  obtain  the  grafts  or  buds,  from  trees  bearing  the  finest 
fruit. 

2.  That  this  fruit  should  ripen  at  different  times,  from  the  earliest 
to  the  latest  of  the  season  for  peaches ;   and, 

3.  That  the  grafts  or  buds  be  taken  from  trees  which  are  plentiful 
bearers,  but  not  such  as  bear  so  plentifully  as  to  be  broken  by 
their  fruit. 

But  perhaps  the  too  plentifnl  bearing  of  trees  is  a  quality  not  proper- 
ly descendible  to  those  which  are  raised  from  them  by  grafting  or 
otherwise.     It  would  be  well  to  ascertain  this  point  by  experiment. 

See  further,  articles  Frvit-Tree3,  Nc7R8ert,  Transplanting, 
Sec.  ice. 


184  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

PEAR-TREE;  (Pjinis.)  This  tree  will  grow  belter  on  a  stiff 
clar  than  most  other  fruit-trees;  but  the  soils  which  best  suit  tiie  ap- 
ple-tree are  also  most  suitable  for  it.  A  scion  of  this  tree  may  be 
j;raftedon  an  apple-tree :  but  it  does  not  answer  so  well  as  when  graft- 
ed on  a  quince,  for  dwarf-fruit :  and  a  quince  answers  well  to  be  graft- 
ed on  a  pear-tree.  The  pear  w  ill  also  grow  on  the  white-thorn.  The 
best  »Tay,  bowerer,  is  to  graft  the  pear  on  ita  own  natural  stock,  se- 
lecting scions  from  the  best  trees  as  in  the  case  of  apple-trees. 

Let  some  part  of  the  selection  also,  as  in  the  case  of  peach-trees, 
last  mentioned,  be  made  from  trees  whose  fruit  ripens  at  different  times, 
in  order  to  have  a  full  supply  for  family  use.  Generally,  it  may  be 
observed,  that  the  culture  which  is  proper  for  an  ajiple-tree,  is  also 
proper  for  a  pear- tree. 

See  articles  Apple-Tref.s,  Orchard.  Fri  iT-Trees,  Ncrsert, 
Transplanting,  <i:c. 

PEA  ;  (Pysum.)  There  are  a  variety  of  peas,  some  of  which  are 
more  and  others  less  valuable  for  cultivation.  Those  most  valuable 
for  garden  culture,  are  the  small  early  peas,  and  the  marrow  fat  peas, 
as  they  are  commonly  called.  The  former  do  not  grow  more  thaB 
three  feet  high ;  they  ri[ten  early,  but  are  not  very  productive.  The 
latter  ripen  later,  but  are  much  more  productive.  They  require  a 
double  row  of  bushes  to  each  double  row  of  peas,  setting  the  bushes 
firmly  in  the  ground  on  the  outside  of  the  tovc?.  The  bushes  should 
be  of  sood  length,  as  the  stalks  will  grow  five  feet  high,  in  a  tolera- 
ble rich  soil.  The  other  kind,  also  require  bushes,  which  may  be 
shorter. 

Peas  of  every  kind  for  family  use,  may  also  be  sown  in  the  field,  ic 
the  broad  cast  way,  and  this  is  the  cheaper  way  of  raising  them,  as  the 
trouble  of  raising  them  in  ganlens  is  very  considerable. 

The  culture  of  field-peas  b  considerably  attended  to  among  our 
German  farmers.  The  product  is  generally  about  eighteen  bushel- 
to  the  acre;  but  in  addition  to  this.  th*^re  is  the  haulm,  which  serves 
to  keep  their  homed  cattle  alive  until  the  return  of  better  times  ;  for 
with  such  food  the  winter  must  to  them  be  a  dreary  season  indeed. 
In  favor  ot  this  culture,  it  should,  however,  be  observed,  thai  the  crop, 
though  of  trifling  value,  does  little  or  no  injury  to  the  crop  of  wheat 
which  always  succeeds  it.  A  change  of  seed,  would,  no  doubt,  be 
productive  of  larger  crops. 

Peas  are  subject  to  a  bug  which  eats  into  the  heart  of  them.  1. 
does  not,  however,  hinder  them  from  growing,  but  if  they  be  not  df- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  11^ 

stroyed,  they  will  infest  the  next  crop.  To  kill  them  let  the  peas  be 
thrown  into  hot  water,  and  kept  in  it  a  few  seconds,  and  then  be 
taken  out,  dried,  and  sowed  immediate!}.  The  same  method  is  to  be 
taken  to  fit  such  peas  for  cooking  ;  as  by  such  treatment  the  bugs  will 
drop  out  after  they  are  dead,  and  may  then  be  easily  separated  Irom 
the  peas.  In  such  case,  they  are,  however,  to  be  kept  longer  in  the 
hot  water. 

The  time  for  sowing  field-peas,  or  planting  garden-peas,  is  as  early 
as  the  ground  can  be  well  prepaf-ed.  A  dry  soil  is  the  best  for  them. 
The  usual  quantity  sowed  to  the  acre  is  two  bushels,  though  some  say, 
that  the  farmer  will  he  gainer  in  sowing  three ;  as  the  thicker  they 
are  sowed  the  less  liable  they  are  to  fall  flat  on  the  ground,  which 
prevents  the  filling  of  the  pods. 

PERRY.  To  make  good  perry,  manage  the  pears  in  the  same 
manner  that  apples  are  directed  to  be  managed  to  make  good  cider, 
with  this  difference,  that  the  pears  need  not  be  sweated  so  long  as  the 
apples,  by  being  laid  in  heaps  for  that  purpose. 

See  article  Cider. 

A  drink  called  pcrkin,  is  also  made  from  the  pressed  cheese,  of 
pears  in  the  same  manner  as  ciderkin  is  made  from  that  of  apples. 

PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING.  In  constructing  a  plough,  the  es- 
sential point  b  to  make  it  run  as  easy  through  the  ground  as  possible, 
and  at  the  same  time  do  its  work  effectually.  In  order  to  run  easy 
it  should  run  flat,  not  be  raising  up  behind  ;  and  the  share  and  mould- 
board  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  assist  jointly  in  turning  over  the 
sward.  For  this  purpose  the  sward  should  be  gradually  raided  by  the 
share,  as  soon  as  it  is  cut  by  the  coulter,  till  it  comes  in  contact  with 
the  mould-board,  and  by  it  as  gradually  turned  over.  The  share  may 
also  be  so  contrived,  and  shaped,  as  to  cut  the  sward  itself,  and  this  is 
probably  the  better  way. 

The  shorter  the  beam  of  the  plough,  and  the  higher  it  is  raised  from 
the  cliip,  the  more  it  w  ill  raise  up  behind  in  ploughing :  and  the  longer 
the  beam  and  the  lower  it  is  placed,  the  more  evenly  it  w  ill  run.  la 
very  rough  grounils,  however,  the  beam  must  be  placed  pretty  high, 
to  avoid  the  stones,  &:c.  that  come  in  its  way  ;  but  in  smooth  grounds, 
as  all  grounds  ought  to  be  made,  the  beam  may  run  very  close  to  the 
ground. 

For  the  purpose  of  gaging  the  plough,  when  turning  over  a  sward  of 
smooth  surface,  instead  of  the  whole  plough,  one  small  wheel  of  cast- 
iron,  properly  fixed  imder  the  end  of  the  beam,  would  be  found  much 


]86  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

better.  This  can  be  so  contrived  as  to  be  raised  or  lowered,  so  as  to 
make  the  plough  run  deeper,  or  shallower,  at  pleasure. 

Cast-iron  plough-shares  have  been  found  to  answer  well  in  smooth 
lands,  and  are  much  cheaper  than  those  of  wrought  iron.  They  may 
be  had  in  New- York.  The  chip  and  the  share  may  also  be  cast  to- 
gether. The  mould-board  may  also  be  of  the  same  material ,  or  the 
share  and  it  may  all  be  cast  together,  and  the  chip  cast  by  itself,  and 
fastened  to  the  share  underneath. 

Under  different  articles  of  this  work  the  necessity  oi  frequent  and 
effectual  ploughings — of  ploughing  when  the  dew  is  on,  as  being  pre- 
ferable to  ploughing  at  other  times — and  of  [>loughiDg  after  the  first 
turning  under  the  sward,  when  the  ground  is  neither  too  wet  nor  too 
dry,  particularly  in  clay  lands — have  been  duly  insisted  on,  and  need 
not  here  be  re[»eated. 

For  Trencii-Ploughijtg,  see  that  article. 

In  breaking  up  the  sward  of  a  side-hill,  it  should  be  ploughed  hori- 
zontally, with  the  furrows  turned  downwards,  and  at  the  next  plough- 
ing the  hill  should  be  taken  diagonally,  having  the  furrows  when  aS' 
scending  to  turn  downwards,  and  when  descending  to  turn  upwards- 
In  this  way  pretty  good  work  can  be  made;  but  in  ploughing  diagon- 
ally in  the  opposite  direction,  nothing  can  be  done  with  the  plough 
while  ascending  the  hill. 

Sir.  Livingston  describes  a  "  double-finned"  plough  which  he  saw 
in  different  parts  of  France,  "  which  has  a  moveable  mould-board  fix- 
ed on  hook  at  the  share,  and  by  a  pin  at  the  broad  end  Avhich  passes 
through  the  mould-board  and  into  the  beam  ;  when  they  come  to  the 
end  of  the  furrow,  instead  of  makiog  a  land,  they  shift  the  mould-board, 
which  is  done  very  quickly,  and  has  the  advantage  of  throwing  the 
furrows  all  one  way."  Such  a  plough  would,  no  doubt,  be  useful 
in  ploughing  side-hills,  where  the  ground  was  not  too  rough  and 
stoney. 

A  field  was  summer  fallowed,  one  part  of  which  was  ploughed 
three  times,  the  other  part  was  ploughed  eleven  times,  and  a  crop  of 
rye  was  all  harrowed  in  at  once.  That  part  of  the  field  which  was 
ploughed  but  three  times  did  not  produce  half  the  crop  which  the 
other  part  yielded. 

All  sward  grounds  which  are  designed  for  spring  crops,  should  be 
ploughed  up  in  the  fall,  in  order  to  be  more  easily  mellowed  in  the 
spring;  and  all  ])loughed  grounds  of  a  wet  or  stiff  soil,  which  are  in 
like  manner  designed  for  spring  crops,  should  be  thrown  up  in  high 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  187 

ridges  in  the  fall,  in  order  that  the  soil  be  kept  drier  than  it  otherwise 
would  be,  and  of  course  more  easily  fitted  for  a  crop  in  the  spring. 
Where  grounds,  however,  are  liable  to  be  washed  by  heavy  rains, 
care  ought  to  be  taken  to  run  the  furrows,  or  the  ridges,  not  up  and 
down  the  descents,  but  gradually  slanting,  or  diagonally,  so  that  the 
waters  will  not  incline  much  to  follow  the  furrows,  but  soak  away  into 
the  soil. 

PLUM-TREES  ;  (Prunus.)  Mr,  Forsyth  recommends  the  fol- 
lowing selection  of  plum-trees  for  a  small  garden : 

The  white  prismordian,  small,  yellow,  mealy;  ripens  latter  end  of 
July. 

Early  damask,  middle  sized,  flesh  good  ;  ripens  early  in  Augusts 

Red  Orleans,  large,  rich  juice  ;  ripens  latter  end  of  August, 

Green-gage,  several  varieties,  fine  tasted,  distinguished  by  its  size 
and  colour;  ripens  in  August  and  September. 

La  royal,  equal  to  the  green-gage,  but  a  shy  bearer;  red  colour; 
ripens  late  in  September. 

Drap  d'or,  a  good  plum,  and  plentiful  bearer ;  ripens  late  in  Sep- 
tember. 

Saint  Catharine,  one  of  the  best ;  rich  juice  and  good  bearer ;  fruit 
hangs  very  long  on  the  tree. 

hnperatrice,  has  an  agreeable  flavor ;  ripens  middle  of  October  | 
should  not  be  gathered  till  it  begins  to  shrivel,  when  it  tastes  like  a 
sweetmeat. 

The  management  proper  for  raising  this  tree  is  the  same  as  that  for 
peaches. 

See  article  Peach-Tree. 

3Ir.  Forsyth  particularly  directs  the  tap  roots  and  the  fine  hairy 
roots  to  be  taken  off  before  transplanting ;  and  that  the  lateral  roots 
should  be  spread  near  the  surface,  in  order  to  make  the  fruit  fine  fla- 
Tored.  He  directs  that  the  ground  should  be  deeply  dug  before  plant- 
ing. Where  the  trees  bear  too  heavily,  part  of  the  fruit  should  be 
taken  off  before  it  is  half  grown, 

A  good  sandy  loam,  well  manured,  is  the  best  for  this  tree.  Stiff 
clays  are  very  unfit  for  it.  Mr.  Livingston  mentions  a  drap  d'or  which 
stood  fifteen  years  in  a  stiff  clay,  and  had  not  grown  to  the  height  of 
nine  feet;  when,  on  removing  it  into  his  garden,  which  is  a  loam  on 
sand,  well  manured  every  year,  it  grew  more  in  two  seasons  than  in 
the  preceding  fifteen  years. 

See  further,  articles  Fkuit-Trees,  Nursery,  Transplanting,  &c. 


188  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

POLL-EVIL.  An  im|)Ostliume  on  the  poll  of  a  horse.  At  lir&K 
says  Mr.  Gibson,  it  requires  no  other  methot!  of  cure  than  is  proj)er 
for  l)oils  and  inflamed  tumors,  hut  il  sometimes,  from  neglect,  or  mis- 
Dianngement,  becomes  a  sinuous  ulcer.  He  says,  the  niittier  is  apt  to 
lodge  in  a  small  sinus  which  is  under  the  poll-bone,  unless  care  be 
taken  to  keep  the  part  firm  with  a  bandage;  thai  it  the  tumor  has  a 
large  cavity  it  should  be  laid  open,  and  if  it  acquires  an  ulcerous  dis- 
position, it  should  be  treated  as  such. 

Sec  further,  articles  Timor  and  Ulcer. 

PONDS.  Those  which  may  have  no  natural  outlet  may  never- 
theless, in  most  cases,  be  drawn  off  by  sinking  a  well,  or  hole,  through 
the  stratum  of  clay,  or  other  close  earth  which  holds  the  water,  until  a 
stratum  of  gravel  shall  be  found,  into  which  the  water  of  the  pond  may 
becarried,  where  it  will  sink  away.  The  well,  orhole,  should  be  filled 
up  with  stones,  and  the  waters  of  the  pond  directed  by  ditches  iatoil. 
Frequently  the  bottoms  of  ponds  are  found  to  be  fine  rich  earths,  and 
well  worthy  of  cultivation.  The  draining  of  such  ponds  is  also  highly 
requisite  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  miasma  which  proceeds  from 
them  and  which  is  so  productive  of  fevers. 

Artificial  pnals  are  sometimes  made  at  the  comers  of  two  or  more 
pasture  lots  for  supplying  cattle  with  water.  One  of  an  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  circumference  should  be  about  five  feet  deep  in  the  cen- 
ter. To  make  it  retentive  of  water,  it  must  be  lincdi  with  a  thick  lay- 
er of  tough  clay  and  fresh  slaked  lime,  mixed  well  together,  and  beat 
down  hard  with  woo<len  beetle?  or  sledges  ;  and  on  the  top  of  this  beat 
in  a  good  layer  of  coarse  sravel.  The  edges,  and  for  some  distance 
down  the  sides  of  the  pond,  should  then  be  faced  with  a  solid  pave- 
ment of  stones,  so  large  as  not  to  be  moved  by  the  treading  of  the  cat- 
tle. Moist  places,  and  such  as  where  water  can  be  collected  together 
after  rains,  are  best  for  ponds  of  this  kind. 

POPPY  ;  (Pciparer  Somniferum.j  There  are  two  species  of  this 
plant,  the  double  |u>nny  and  the  single. 

Doctor  Ricketson  says,  that  either  of  the  species  yield  Lhe  same 
quantity  and  quality  of  opium.  He  directs  the  see<ls  to  be  planted  in 
beds,  about  the  middle  of  May,  in  rich  moist  ground,  the  plants  to 
stand  at  the  distaoce  of  a  foot  apart.  They  are  to  be  kept  clear  of 
weeds  with  the  hoe. 

The  plants,   he  says,  yield  the  most  juice  during  their  flowering, 
and  immediately  before  and  after.     At  this  time  he  directs  thestilks 
to  be  cut  off  about  an  inch  below  the  heads,  and  as  the  juice  exudes. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  189 

to  take  it  off  with  a  penknife.  The  part  cutoff  will  at  first  yield  juice 
as  well  as  the  standing  stalk.  When  this  ceases  to  run  cut  it  off  a 
little  lower,  and  so  on,  till  all  the  juice  is  extracted. 

Thejuice  is  to  be  evaporated  in  the  sun  till  it  is  sufficiently  dried. 

POTATOE;  fSolamim.J  This  is  a  native  of  America,  and  was 
first  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  famous  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

This  root,  when  boiled,  is  found  to  be  wholesome  and  nourishing 
food  for  man  and  beast.  IMany  families  of  the  peasantrj'  of  Ireland 
have  little  else  for  subsistence  than  potatoes  and  milk,  and  frequently 
nothing  but  potatoes  with  a  little  salt ;  yet  these  are  as  healthy,  vigor- 
ous, and  well  made,  as  any  people  in  Great-Britain. 

Potatoes  are  usually  propagated  by  the  roots;  but  they  tnay  also 
be  raised  from  the  cuttings  of  the  top  branches  when  set  in  the  ground, 
and  these  will  even  strike  root  if  planted  bottom  upwards.  The 
sprouts  taken  from  the  potatoes  in  the  spring  will  also  grow,  and  it  is 
said,  that  a  piece  of  the  heart  of  a  potatoe  will  also  do  the  same. 

From  the  seeds  contained  in  the  apples,  potatoes  may  also  be  raised 
of  various  kinds,  differing  from  that  which  bore  the  apple ;  and  this  is 
the  way  in  which  new  kinds  of  potatoes  are  to  be  obtained.  For  this 
purpose,  let  the  apples  be  gathered  after  the  seeds  are  fully  ripe ; 
mash  them  together  in  some  water  till  the  pulp  becomes  all  washed 
away  and  separated  from  the  seeds ;  then  dry  the  seeds,  and  the  next 
spring  sow  them  in  a  bed,  which  is  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  until  the 
young  plants  shall  have  acquired  their  growth.  The  potatoes  raised 
of  this  year's  growth  will  be  small;  but  let  Ihem  be  sorted,  and 
the  next  year  planted,  each  kind  by  itself,  and  the  products  will  be 
full  grown,  or  nearly  so.  Farmers  should  frequently  attend  to  this 
method  of  acquiring  new  sorts  of  potatoes:  as  those  which  have  been 
planted  for  several  years  are  always  found  to  have  degenerated,  and 
eventually,  will  produce  little  or  nothing.  Some  of  the  new  sorts, 
thus  produced,  will  be  found  to  excel  in  size  and  greatness  of  product, 
and  others  again  in  dryness  and  superiority  of  taste;  and  thus,  the 
farmer  can  be  accommodated  with  such  as  are  best  for  the  table,  and 
with  such  as  are  best  calculated  for  feeding  swine,  &c.  For  this  latter 
use,  I  have  lately  seen  a  new  kind  which  grow  to  the  length  of  eight 
inches,  and  Avill  probablj'  yield  double  of  most  other  kinds  now  in 
cultivation.  One  potatoe  of  this  kind  when  cut  into  as  many  pieces 
as  there  were  eyes,  and  planted  in  four  hills,  gave  upwards  of  a  bushel. 
Arthur  Young,  Esq.  makes  mention  of  a  thousand  bushels  haying  beeij 


190  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

raised  to  the  acre  in  Great-Britain;  and  I  think  it  not  improbable, 
that  this  amount  could  be  raised  here  of  this  kind  of  potatoe. 

The  best  soil  for  potatoes  is  a  mellow  sandy  loam,  or  gravell}  loam, 
a  fertile  sandy  soil,  or  a  rich  black  earth  :  Any  soil,  indeed,  except 
claj",  can  be  made  to  produce  pretty  good  crops,  with  proper  manures, 
if  it  be  not  too  wet  and  cold.     The  kind  of  dung  used,  ought  to  be 
adapted  to  the  soil ;  such  as  cow-dung  and  hog-dung  for  more  light 
and  sandy  grounds,  and  horse  and  sheep-duog  for  more  moist  soils. 
Let  the  ground  be  turned  over  in  the  fall ;  in  the  spring,  immediate- 
ly before  planting,  plough  in  a  plentiful  supply  of  suitable  dung;  run 
very  light  furrows  about  three  and  a  half  feet  apart ;  drop  the  pota- 
toes, whble,  along  the  furrows,  at  the  distance  of  about  eighteen  in- 
ches apart,  or,  if  cut  in  two,  at  the  distance  of  a  foot  apart,  and  cover 
them  with  a  light  furrow  run  along  on  one  side,  or  with  the  hoe. 
When  the  plants  have  grown  to  the  height  of  six  or  eight  inches,  run 
the  plough  along  on  each  side  of  the  rows,  as  close  as  possible,  without 
injuring  the  plants,  turning  the  furrows  from  them,  then  immediately 
turn  the  furrow  back  to  them,  and  thus  the  soil  becomes  sufiBciently 
re-mellowed  to  keep  up  a  due  degree  of  fermentation  about  the  roots. 
Let  this  ploughing  be  followed  with  the  hoe;  then  indue  season  give 
them  another  ploughing,  sufficiently  deep,  turning  the  furrows  to  the 
rows.     Follow  again  with  the  hoe,  destroying  all  the  weeds,  and  if 
any  afterwards  arise,  let  them  again  be  destroyed  by  the  hoe,  so  that 
none  shall  be  suffered  to  go  to  seed.     From  the  first  to  the  tenth  of 
May  is  the  best  time  to  plant  potatoes  in  order  to  obtain  the  largest 
crops. 

The  digging  may  be  performed  with  the  plough,  running  a  furrow 
first  on  each  side,  and  then  through  the  middle  of  the  rows;  but  per- 
haps, as  good  a  method  as  any,  is,  to  take  a  broad  spade,  or  shovel,  and 
ron  it  under  the  bunches  of  potatoes,  for  w  hen  planted,  as  above  di- 
rected, they  will  grow  in  bunches;  raise  up  the  whole  mass,  shake  it, 
and  the  earth  will  fall  first,  leaving  all  the  potatoes  on  the  top  of  the 
ground. 

I  have  seen  it  stated  in  some  of  our  newspapers,  that  plucking  off  the 
blossoms,  just  before  the  apple  is  formed,  will  tend  very  considerably 
to  increase  the  crop.  The  farmer  will  do  well  to  ascertain  the  truth 
of  this. 

If  dung  is  to  be  applied  to  the  rows,  it  should  be  placed  under  the 
potatoes.     The  process,  however,  of  dunging  in  this  way  is  tedioi^? 


FAHMfiR'S  ASSISTANT.  191 

and  by  running  the  loaded  cart  so  often  over  the  ground,  as  is  neces- 
sary for  this  pur[)ose,  it  becomes  so  much  hardened,  and  of  course,  in- 
jured for  goo4  cultivation  afterwards,  that  ou  the  whole,  it  isdoubtl'ul, 
if  any  thing  be  gained  by  this  method  of  manuring  the  crop.  In  light 
sandy  grounds,  however,  it  may  be  best. 

Last  spring,  I  planted  about  twelve  square  rods  of  ground  in  my 
garden  with  potatoes  in  hills.  In  each  hill,  of  about  half  this  ground, 
was  put  one  whole  potatoe,  and  dung  was  put  under  them.  For  the 
four  first  rows  the  very  largest  potatoes,  and  they  were  uncommonly 
large,  were  selected  to  plant ;  and  for  the  four  next  rows  the  very 
smallest  were  selected,  and  planted  one  in  a  hill.  The  weight  of  po- 
tatoes planted  in  the  latter  rows  was  not  a  fourth  of  that  of  the  former. 
On  the  rest  of  the  ground  the  dung  was  scattered,  and  two  whole  po- 
tatoes, of  ordinary  size,  were  planted  in  each  hill.  The  result  of  all 
this  was  as  follows  :  The  four  first  rows  produced  nearly  double  the 
quantity  of  stalks  which  was  produced  by  the  four  next.  The  stalks 
of  the  remainder  of  the  piece  were  not  so  large  as  those  of  the  first 
four  rows.  When  the  potatoes  were  dug,  no  essential  difference  was 
observed  between  the  product  of  the  four  first  rows  and  the  next  four 
planted  with  the  smallest  potatoes.  They  Avere  all  fine  large  ones. 
The  remainder  of  the  piece  produced  about  an  equal  quantity  to  the 
hill,  but  there  were  a  greater  proportion  of  small  ones  among  them. 

I  also  planted  two  small  beds  after  the  Irish  fashion.  They  wer6 
cut  in  the  usual  manner  and  set  about  ten  inches  apart.  When  dug 
they  were  sufiiciently  numerous,  but  much  smaller  than  those  which 
were  planted  whole. 

On  the  whole,  I  am  rather  of  opinion,  that  cutting  potatoes  is  of  no 
service  to  the  crop,  but  perhaps  an  injury ;  and  I  am  also  further  of 
opinion,  that  this  is  the  principal,  and  perhaps  the  only  cause  of  their 
degenerating  so  rapidly  as  they  are  found  to  do.  The  laws  of  vege- 
tation do  not  indicate  a  necessity  of  cutting  them  to  pieces  to  make 
them  grow  better.  It  would  also  seem  by  the  above,  that  there  is  no 
necessity  of  planting  the  largest  potatoes,  but  that  at  least  those  of  a 
moderate  size  will  answer  as  well  as  any. 

Potatoes  will  answer  very  well  when  fed  raw^  to  horses;  that  is, 
they  will  keep  them  sleeck  and  in  good  condition ;  but  for  fatting  any 
animal,  particularly  swine,  they  should  be  boiled. 

For  the  best  method  of  boiling  them,  see  article  Swine. 

For  preserving  potatoes  for  family  use,  in  winter,  the  best  way  is  io 
mix  them  with  alternate  layers  of  dry  sand  ;  and  when  spring  a,rrive8 


192  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

let  ihem  be  taken  out  of  the  sand,  well  dried,  acd  stowed  a^ay  ia  a 
close  chest,  or  l>ox,  iuto  which  the  light  cannot  penetrate,  and  i»ut  in 
the  garret  or  some  other  dry  place.  It  is  also  said,  that  lor  keejiing 
them  during  summer,  a  slight  scalding  with  boiling  water,  and  then 
drj'ing  them  again,  is  very  serviceable  in  preventing  their  sprouting, 
which  always  very  much  injures  them  lor  eating.  If,  however,  ihey 
be  entirely  deprived  ol  light  and  kept  entirely  dry,  they  will  sprout 
but  very  little,  if  any;  but  it  light  be  let  iu  at  any  small  holt  the 
sprouts  will  directly  start,  when  the  weather  is  warm,  anil  point  thtir 
Avay  to  the  spot  I'rom  whence  the  light  issues.  This  is  a  very  striking 
case  to  shew  how  necessary  light  is  to  vegetation. 

To  raise  potatoes  with  a  mere  covering  oi  straw,  lay  them  on  a  cleatt 
eward,  and  cover  them  over  with  straw  to  Uie  depth  oi'  about  eight 
inches.  In  due  season  they  will  be  lound  nturly  as  M'ell  grown  as 
ir  they  had  been  buried  in  the  ground,  and  will  be  drier,  and  tjetter 
tasted  lor  early  eating. 

From  this  root  an  ardent  spirit  can  be  distilled  ;  but  this  is  not  pro- 
perly the  business  ol  the  tarmer.  Starch  of  the  best  kind  can  also  be 
made  from  it  in  abundance,  and  it  is  believed,  that  the  manufacturing 
of  this  would  be  found  very  profitable. 

The  method  ol  raising  potatoes  in  beds,  as  is  ptactbed  by  the  pea- 
santry of  Ireland,  is  calculated  to  produce  more  to  the  acre,  but  is  at- 
tended with  more  manual  labor;  the  spade  being  used  instead  of  the 
plough.  But  tnough  there  be  more  labor  in  getting  the  seed  into  the 
ground,  still  there  is  less  in  attending  to  them  afterwards :  as  in  .hia 
uay  there  is  no  ploughing  and  hoeii.g  the  croji,  but  merely  weeding 
it  a  little  and  keeping  the  trenches  chan.  'J'he  young  [dants  so  soon 
cover  the  Ijeds,  that  but  very  few  weeds  have  a  chance  of  growing. 
For  raising  a  crop  in  this  way,  a  piece  o!  sward  ground,  or  any  other, 
is  first  well  covered  with  dung,  then  the  ground  is  marked  out  for 
beds  about  five  or  six  feet  wide,  leaving  a  sufficient  space  between 
each  for  digging  the  tranches.  The  potatoes  are  then  cut,  and  set  in 
rows  across  the  beds,  about  ten  inches  from  each  other,  and  they  are 
then  covered  to  the  depth  of  about  two  inches  or  more,  by  the  earth 
which  is  dug  out  of  the  trenches. 

In  this  way  good  cro[)s  of  potatoes  can  be  raised  on  any  wet  meadow 
grounds,  that  have  a  sufficient  depth  of  good  soil ;  as  by  means  of  the 
trenches  thf  ground  is  laid  sufficiently  dry.  It  would  also  seem,  that 
some  kinds  of  noxious  weeds  might  be  destroyeil  in  this  way;  lor  by 
covering  thesj  over  w  bile  iu  their  growing  state,  they  would  be  snioth- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  1D3 

(fed  and  completely  killed.  Beds,  made  in  this  way,  roued  thfe  bor- 
ders of  fields,  might  often  be  useful  for  destroying  many  growths  of 
weeds,  briars,  bushes,  &c.  which  frequently  encumber  such  parts  of 
the  field. 

Great  crops  of  potatoes  are  sometimes  raised  in  the  following  man- 
ner, and  this  is  probably  the  best,  where  the  ground  is  well  prepared. 
Manure  the  ground  well ;  have  it  well  cleared  of  the  seeds  of  weeds, 
and  make  it  sufficiently  mellow  ;  then  begin  on  one  side  of  the  piece 
and  run  a  light  furrow,  and  set  that  with  cut  potatoes,  at  the  distance 
of  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart :  The  next  furrow  which  is  to  be  rua 
along  side  of  this  covers  these,  and  that  is  again  set  with  potatoes  as 
before,  which  are  covered  by  the  third  furrow,  and  so  on  till  the  whole 
ground  is  planted :  Then  run  furrows  through  the  whole,  eight  feet 
apart,  for  the  purpose  of  walking  in  when  weeding.  When  the  po- 
tatoes are  to  be  gathered,  run  a  furrow  through  them,  beginning  on 
one  side  as  before;  pick  up  what  potatoes  are  thrown  out;  then  run 
another  furrow,  and  again  pick  up  what  are  thrown  out  by  it ;  then  a 
third,  and  so  on  till  the  whole  ground  is  gone  over.  Then  harrow  the 
ground  and  pickup  what  potatoes  are  disclosed  by  this  operation  ;  and 
again  harrow  and  pick  up,  by  which  time  the  ground  will  be  pretty 
well  cleaned. 

The  farmer  will  find  the  cultivation  of  potatoes  very  profitable,  if 
be  duly  attends  to  the  selection  of  such  kinds  for  planting  as  are  most 
productive,  and  at  the  same  time  cultivates  them  in  an  effectual  man- 
ner. They  are  equally  good  for  feeding  and  fatting  all  sorts  of  cattle 
when  boiled,  and  the  expense  of  this  is  but  trifling,  it  a  steam-boiler 
be  used  for  the  purpose.  It  is  said  that  planting  in  the  full  of  the  moon 
will  increase  the  crop. 

POULTRY.  Mr.  AVakefield,  a  spirited  farmer  near  Liverpool, 
say  the  compilers  of  "  The  Gomplcte  Grasier,"  keeps  a  large  stock  of 
poultry  in  the  same  enclosure  with  singular  success.  He  has  nearly 
an  acre  enclosed  with  a  close  slab-fence,  about  seven  feet  high  :  The 
top  of  the  fence  is  every  where  sharp  pointed,  like  pickets,  though 
perhaps  this  is  not  necessary.  Within  this  enclosure  are  put  up  slight 
small  sheds,  well  secured  from  rains,  however,  for  the  different  kinds 
of  poultry,  and  it  is  supplied  with  a  small  stream  of  water.  The 
poultry  are  regularly  fed  three  times  a  day  with  boiled  potatoes, 
which  is  their  only  food,  except  what  grass  may  srow  within  the 
ffiwlo'snte. 


194  FARMER^S  ASSISTANT. 

The  dung  of  the  poultry,  which  is  exceedingly  rich,  is  earcfulty 
saved  for  use ;  and  the  turf  of  the  enclosure  is  occasionally  pared  off 
for  mixing  with  coni|)Ost3. 

It  would  seem,  that  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns  particularly,  thi* 
might  be  made  a  profitable  emptoyment.  But  it  is  believed,  that  the 
better  way  woutil  be  to  keep  the  different  kinds  of  poultry  separate, 
as  they  are  not  apt  to  agree  well  together.  Something  shall  now  be 
said  of  eaeh  sort  separately. 

Of  the  dKmktil  foTvls,  as  they  are  usually  called,  there  are  various 
breeds,  which  if  is  perhitps  imnecessftry  to  designate.  When  well  kept, 
a  good  hen  will  lay  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  bumlred  eggs  in 
a  seasoB,  which  may  be  at  Feast  consi<lered  worth  a  cent  each.  If 
lier  eggs  be  not  taken  from  her  she  will  bring  forth  three  broods  in  a 
year,  if  well  kept,  and  each  brood  may  be  estimated  at,  say,  eight 
grown  chickens. 

Guiiua  fonts,  also,  lay  many  eggs  in  the  coujse  of  the  season  ;  but 
as  they  are  natm^Fly  fond  of  wandering  away  and  laying  them  where 
they  are  not  easily  to  be  fouml,  it  is  not  probable  they  could  be  con- 
fined to  an  enclosure  like  the  one  in  questiofi.  Their  flesh  is  of  a  lit- 
tle value. 

The  young  brood  of  turkies,  might  probably,  be  most  advantageously 
brought  forth  in  an  enclosure  like  this,  and  alter  they  had  acquired 
sufficient  strength,  let  go  abroad  to  shift  for  themselves. 

The  black  turkey  is  the  most  hardy.  The  young  of  this  fowl  are  ten>- 
der  and  apt  to  die.  The  Swedish  method  of  making  them  hardy,  is 
to  take  them  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  they 
are  found,  and  plunge  them  in  cokl  water,  and  force  each  one  to 
swallow  a  pepper-corn. 

After  this  they  are  subject  to  another  fatal  malady  which  must  be 
removed.  In  order  to  this,  when  any  of  them  are  found  droo|)ing, 
pull  out  such  feathers  of  the  tail  as  are  filled  with  blood,  and  the  chick- 
en will  presently  recover. 

This  fowl  is  profitable  to  raise  inmaay  situations.  They  are  also  of 
great  use  in  destroying  insects,  particularly  grass-hojipers. 

The  turkey  derives  its  name  from  the  country  from  whence  it  was 
originally  imported,  it  appears,  however,  to  be  the  same  with  that 
which  runs  wild  in  the  interior  of  our  country-. 

Of  gttse  there  are  two  sorts,  the  wihl  and  the  tame.  In  general, 
they  breed  but  once  a  year,  but  frequently  twic«,  if  well  kept.  Three 
geese  should  be  allotted  to  one  gander;  fur  if  the  number  be  increased 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  195 

the  eggs  will  usually  be  rendered  abortive.  About  twelve  or  thir- 
teen eggs  are  enough  for  a  sitting.  While  brooding,  the  goose  should 
have  corn  and  water  placed  by  her,  and  the  gander  should  at  this 
time  have  free  access  to  guard  her.  The  nest  should  be  sufficiently 
high  round  the  sides  to  prevent  the  eggs  from  rolling  out,  as  they  are 
turned  by  the  goose  every  day.  It  is  well  also  to  break  the  egg 
slightly  near  the  beak  of  tlie  young  gosling  when  they  are  about  to 
jnake  their  way  out. 

Geese  are  particularly  profitable  for  their  feathers ;  and  although 
(lie  plucking  of  them  so  often,  as  is  practised  by  some,  appears  barba- 
rous, yet  it  is  found  that  they  thrive  better  by  repeated  pluckings  thaa 
wliere  they  are  permitted  to  shed  their  feathers  in  the  natural  way, 
which  is  at  the  time  of  moulting. 

In  Lincoln  county,  (Great-Britain,)  where  they  are  raised  in  the 
greatest  numbers,  they  are  plucked  five  times  a  year;  the  first  time 
at  Lady  Day,  for  feathers  and  quills,  and  four  times  afterwards,  be- 
tween that  and  Michaelmas,  for  feathers  onl3% 

Tame  ducks,  of  which  there  are  varieties,  are  the  same  as  the  wild. 
They  begin  to  lay  early,  and  afford  a  considerable  number  of  eggs, 
which  are  nearly  as  good  as  those  of  dunghill  fowls.  About  twelve 
is  enough  for  a  duck  to  sit  on.  Ducks  are  greedy  feeders,  but  not 
nice  as  to  their  food.  They  are  quickly  fatted  on  animal  food,  of 
which  they  are  fond,  and  their  flesh  then  tastes  like  that  of  the  wild- 
duck.  They  are  useful  in  turnip  fields  while  the  young  plants  are 
liable  to  be  preyed  on  by  insects. 

Poultry  is  most  easily  fatted  when  kept  in  a  dark  place ^  and  boiled 
grain  is  generally  best  for  the  purpose  of  fatting. 

PYRITES.    See  article  MANUREi. 


196  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 


^' 


QUINCE-TREE;  (Cydonia.)  This  tree  is  easily  raised  frum 
layers  or  cuttings.  A  mobt  soil  suits  it  best.  Let  the  cuttiogs  be 
planted  early  in  the  spring  and  be  watered  in  dry  warm  weather. 
They  require  bat  little  pruning,  except  to  keep  them  clear  of  suckers, 
dead,  and  cross  limbs ;  and  where  they  bare  too  many  luxuriant  up- 
right shoots  in  the  top  these  should  be  taken  out, 

Mr.  Forsyth  says,  they  are  apt  to  have  rough  bark  and  to  be  bark- 
bound.  In  this  case,  he  directs  to  shave  off  the  rough  bark,  scarify 
them,  and  then  to  brush  them  over  with  his  composition. 

He  says,  they  should  be  planted  at  some  distance  from  apple  and 
pear-trees,  lest  their  farina  should  mix,  which  would  cause  the  apple* 
and  pears  to  degenerate.     But  perhaps  this  is  msre  theory. 


R. 


RADISH.  This  root  being  liable  to  be  eaten  by  worms,  the  foK 
lowing  method  is  recommended  for  raising  them:  Take  equal  quanti- 
ties of  buck-wheat  bran,  and  fresh  horse-dunsr,  and  mix  them  well  and 
plentifully  in  the  ground,  by  digging  :  Suddenly  after  this  a  great  fer- 
mentation will  be  produced,  and  numbers  of  toad-stools  will  start  up  in 
forty-eieht  hours :  Dig  the  ground  over  again  and  sow  the  seed,  and 
the  radishes  will  grow  with  great  rapidity  and  be  free  from  the  attacks 
of  insects.  They  will  grow  uncommonly  large.  Buck-wheat  bran 
is  an  excellent  manure  of  itself. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  197 

RED-TOP  ;  (Poa  Triviaiis.)  This  grass  is  suitable  for  dry  up- 
land, or  for  moist  soils.  It  makes  good  pasture  and  good  hay,  but  is 
not  so  productive  as  herds-graes. 

See  article  Grasses. 

ROLLER  AND  ROLLING.  The  roller  is  useful  in  smoothing  the 
surface  of  meadows  that  have  become  uneven,  and  for  passing  over 
grounds  newly  sown  with  grain,  or  that  are  to  be  laid  down  to  grass. 
They  are  further  useful  in  breaking  the  lumps  of  baked  earth  in  a 
clay  soil ;  but  for  this  purpose,  a  roller  filled  with  iron  spikes  has  been 
preferred. 

See  article  Spiky  Roller. 

The  use  of  the  roller  on  grounds  sowed  mth  different  kinds  of  grain, 
particularly  barley,  w  hich  is  dry  and  husky,  is  to  cause  the  mould  to 
enclose  the  seeds ;  much  of  which,  by  laying  in  cavities  that  seon 
become  dried,  would  otherwise  fail  of  vegetating.  It  is  also  useful  in 
light  dry  soils  for  preventing  their  moisture  to  evaporate  too  easily. 
Perhaps  the  roller  is  as  uselul  for  this  purpose  as  for  any  other,  in  re- 
gard to  its  application  to  crops  of  grain.  It  is  also  useful  in  depriving 
certain  insects  of  their  hiding  places  in  the  cavities  of  the  soil. 

The  rolling  of  land  in  tillage,  should  be  done  when  the  ground  is 
$0  dry  that  it  will  not  stick  to  the  roller  ;  and  in  grass  lands  it  should 
be  performed  in  the  spring  when  the  ground  is  soft  and  wet. 

A  wooden  roller  shouhl  be  about  twenty  inches  or  two  feet  in  dia- 
meter, and  about  six  feet  in  length.  It  should  be  round  and  of  an 
uniform  surface.  Where  the  roller  is  made  of  stone,  it  should  be 
about  fourteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  the  length  above  men- 
tioned. 

ROOTS.  The  most  essential  divisions  of  these,  are  those  of  the 
tap,  the  hulhoji}),  and  the  fibrous  kinds.  The  carrot,  parsnip,  beet, 
clover,  &c.  are  tap-rooted ;  the  potatoe,  onion,  turnip,  6zc.  are  bulb- 
ous ;  the  plants  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  herdsgrass,  &c.  have  fibrous 
roots.  Tap  roots  have  also  fibrous  roots,  which  like  all  others  of  that 
kind,  extend  horizontally,  far  in  every  direction,  and  become  so  fine 
that  they  are  imperceptible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  bulbous  have 
also  such  fibrous  roots,  and  one  kind,  the  turnip,  has  also  a  tap  root  in 
addition  to  its  fibrous  roots.     Trees  have  alse  tap  and  fibrous  roots. 

Some  tap  roots  will  extend  downward,  as  far  as  they  can  find  the 
soil  sufficiently  opened  to  receive  them.  I  have  known  an  instance 
of  a  parsnip  taken  from  the  ground,  three  feet  in  length.  This  shews 
»he  necessity  of  having  the  soil  deeply  mellowed  for  tap  roots;  and 


198  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  ibrous  roots  exteoding  horizontally  eo  far  in  eyery  direction, 
where  they  can  fiml  mellow  earth  to  penetrate,  shews  the  necessity  of 
having  the  grounj  well  mellowed  to  a  gufficitnl  depth  to  receive 
them. 

ROTATION.     Su  Chance  of  Chops. 

RUN  NET,  OR  RENNET.  A  good  method  of  making  thb  is  as 
follows:  Take  the  maw  of  the  calf;  empty  it  of  its  curd  ;  wash  it; 
toak  it  in  strong  brine  till  it  is  well  salted  ;  dry  it  on  boughs  madt-  for 
the  purpose  ;  then  take  two  quarts  of  strong  brine  that  will  bear  an 
eg<:,  blood  warm,  and  let  the  maw  steep  in  this  twenty-lour  hours, 
when  the  liquor  will  be  6t  for  u»e  ;  bottle  it  up,  aud  cork  il  tight,  and 
it  will  keep  for  a  twelvemonth.  About  a  tea-cup  full  will  be  sufficient 
for  ten  cows.  Some  direct  spices,  and  a  lemon  sliced,  to  be  put  into 
this  liquor. 

Another  method  is  to  take  the  maw%  emptied  as  before,  and  fill  it 
with  an  artificial  curd  made  of  new  cream  ;  into  which  put  three  egge 
beat  fine;  a  nutmeg  grated  fine  ;  and  three  tea-cup  fulls  of  fine  salt; 
mix  the  mass  well  together;  tie  up  the  mouth  of  the  bag;  lay  it  uo- 
der  a  strong  brine  for  three  days,  turning  it  over  daily;  then  hang  it 
up  in  a  dry  cool  place  for  six  weeks,  when  it  will  be  fit  for  w»e. 
When  used  it  is  first  to  be  dissolveil  in  warm  water. 

The  acid  contained  in  the  maw  is  very  apt  to  become  rancid,  and 
to  putrify,  if  a  sufficiency  of  salt  be  not  applied;  care  must  therefore 
be  taken  to  prevent  thb  by  a  due  supply  of  this  article.  No  good 
cheese  can  be  made  unless  the  runuet  l)e  g»K>d. 

The  ruunet-bag  may  also  l»e  salted  and  dried,  as  before  directed, 
and  pieces  of  it  occasionally  used,  by  being  previously  soaked  in 
warm  water,  and  a  quantity  of  Ihb  water  used  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  milk  to  be  turned. 

In  Holland  the  cheese-makers  use  no  runnet,  but  instead  of  this  thej 
use  a  small  portion  of  spirit  of  sea-salt,  (imtriatic  acid, J  for  formmg  the 
curd.  This  gives  the  cheese  a  taste  somewhat  different  from  that 
nade  with  runnet.  The  acid  should  probably  be  diluted.  The 
quantity,  which  is  just  sufficient,  may  be  ascertained  by  a  few  ex- 
periments. 

KYE;  (Sccalc.)  There  is  hot  one  kind  of  rye,  altboueb  it  b  dis- 
tinguifhed  by  the  names  of  winter  rye  and  8j>rin^  rye.  Take  winter 
rye  and  sow  it  later  and  later,  each  year,  in  the  fall,  and  it  m  .y  at 
length  be  sown  in  the  spring,  and  then  it  b  spring  rye :  Or  take 
spring  rye  and  sow  it  at  first  very  late  in  the  fall,  and  then  a  Utile 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  199 

earlier  every  succeeding  fall,  and  it  will  become  confirmed  in  the  habit 
of  winter  rye. 

A  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  will  produce  as  good  rye  as  any  other.  It 
will,  however,  grow  pretty  well  on  almost  any  soil  that  is  not  too  wet. 
It  will  grow  year  after  year  on  the  same  soil  without  exhausting  if, 
provided  the  stubble  be  constantly  ploughed  under,  immediately  after 
taking  off  the  crojjs.  It  will  grow  very  well  on  a  poor  soil,  and  on  the 
very  richest,  Mr.  L'Hommedieu  makes  mention  of  twenty  square 
rods  of  ground,  of  gravelly  soil,  which  a  neighbour  of  his  manured  with 
four  thousand  fish,  called  monhadcn,  and  sowed  with  rye.  In  the 
spring,  the  piece  was  twice  successively  eaten  off  close  to  the  ground, 
by  sheep  breaking  in,  after  it  liad  acquired  a  height  of  nine  inches  the 
first  time  and  six  inches  the  latter.  These  croppings,  however,  only 
served  to  make  it  grow  thicker  antt  stronger  than  before?  and  whes 
harvested,  it  produced  sixteen  bushels,  or  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-eight  bushels  to  the  acrej  giving  to  the  proprietor,  ac- 
cording to  the  calculation  of  Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  a  clear  profit  often 
dollars  sixty-two  cents,  after  deducting  the  cost  of  manuring,  tillage, 
&c. ;  or  at  the  rate  of  eighty-tive  dollars  to  the  acre  of  clear  profit. 

Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  however,  supposes  the  crop  would  have  been 
lost  by  lodging,  had  it  not  been  ibr  the  two  successive  croppings  of 
the  sheep.  Would  it  not  be  well  to  try  eimilar  experiments  with 
wheat  ? 

Winter  rye  may  be  sowed  early  in  the  spring  and  used  as  pasture 
during  the  season  ;  or  it  may  be  sown  at  the  usual  time  ami  serve  for 
a  sheep  pasture  a  while  during  the  next  spring  without  injury  t»  the 
crop.  It  may  aiso  be  mowe<l  for  hay  two  or  three  times  during  the 
summer,  when  sown  in  the  spring.  For  such  uses,  ,however^  the 
ground  should  have  more  seed  than  the  usual  allowance,  winch  for 
early  sowing  in  the  fall,  is  about  a  bushel  to  the  acre,  or  a  bushel  and 
a  half  for  later  sowing.  Spring  rye  should  also  have  this  latter  allow- 
ance, and  be  sown  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  well  prepared. 

Rye  is  subject  to  rr.st,  but  seldom  or  never  to  smut.  It  is  also  lia- 
ble to  a  distemper  called  the  sjnir. 

See  article  Spir. 

That  which  is  intended  for"  family  use  ought,  if  the  weather  he  good, 
to  be  harvested  even  as  early  as  when  the  rye  is  yet  in  the  milk,  and 
let  lie  on  the  ground  for  some  days  to  dry  and  harden.  By  thi-  means 
the  grain  will  make  a  much  whiter  flour,  though  the  product  will  not 
be  quite  so  heavy  as  when  it  stands  till  it  is  fully  ripe. 


200  FARiAIER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Rye,  as  it  is  usually  cultivated,  is  not  an  article  of  much  clear  profit- 
Yet,  it  may  be  well  enough  for  the  farmer  to  cultivate  some  of  his 
gravelly  or  saudy  lands  in  raising  this  grain,  particularly  in  parts  of 
the  country  where  wheat  is  not  natural  to  the  soil,  or  where  he  can 
make  his  ground  yield  him  yearly  as  much  as  fifteen  bushels  to  the 
acre.  In  order  to  acquire  this  yearly  product,  he  ought  to  plough  the 
stubble  under  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  taken  off,  which  helps  the  ground, 
and  serves  to  destroy  the  seeds  of  weeds.  Let  it  lie  till  about  the 
first  of  September;  then  plough  the  ground  again,  and  harrow  in  the 
next  crop.  Some  assert,  that  in  this  way  the  crops  will  increase  in 
quantitj'.  Allowing,  however,  the  average  product  to  be  fifteen 
bushels  an  acre,  and  allowing  seven  bushels  of  this  to  pay  all  the 
expenses  of  ploughing,  &c. ;  harvesting  and  threshing,  &c. ;  then  al- 
lowing four  bushels  more  to  pay  for  the  rent  of  the  land,  the  clear  pro- 
fit would  be  four  bushels,  equal  to  about  three  dollars  an  acre.  This, 
indeed,  would  not  be  sufficient  to  tempt  the'farmer  to  go  largely  into 
the  cultivation  of  rye  ;  but  if  by  manurings,  applied  every  olheryear, 
which  should  cost  him  not  more  than  the  value  of  ten  bushels  of  rye 
to  the  acre,  he  could  make  his  lands  give  a  yearly  average  of  thirty 
bushels  an  acre;  he  would  have  a  yearly  clear  profit,  equal  to  four- 
teen bushels  an  acre,  which  would  make  the  business  of  raising  rye  a 
little  more  respectable.  If  the  ground,  however,  becomes  too  weedy, 
it  must  be  summer  fallowed. 

Bread  made  entirely  of  rye  is  laxative  and  good  to  prevent  costive- 
ness.  It  is  usual  to  mix  some  flour  of  Indian  corn  with  that  of  rye, 
in  making  bread,  which  serves  to  prevent  its  clamminess. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  261 


R. 


CONTINUED. 


{Note, — Tlie  following  articles  were  furnished  by  the  Author^  after 
ihe  sheet  containing  the  preceding  articles  under  the  letter  R.  had  been 
put  to  press — which  rendered  it  inconvenient  to  arrange  them  in  the  at- 
phabetical  order  in  which  the  other  parts  of  this  work  are  rfont .] 


RABBITS.  *'  In  some  situations  these  animals  may  be  kept  to 
advantage,  as  they  multiply  exceedingly,  and  require  no  trouble  in 
bringing  up.  They  delight  in  the  sides  of  sandy  hills,  which  are  ge- 
nerally unproductive  when  tilled,  but  level  ground  is  improper  for 
them.  The  fur  of  the  rabbit  is  worth  thrice  the  value  of  the  carcase. 
Therefore,  supposing  the  rabbit  to  consume  a  quantity  of  food  in  pro- 
portion to  its  carcase,  it  is  a  species  of  stock  nearly  three  times  as  va- 
luable as  either  cattle  or  sheep.  Rabbit  warrens  ought  to  be  enclos*- 
ed  with  a  stone  or  sod  wall ;  and  at  their  first  stocking  it  will  be  ne- 
cessary to  form  burrows  for  them  until  they  have  time  to  make  them 
for  themselves.  Boring  the  ground  horizontally  with  a  large  augur  is 
perhaps  the  best  method  that  can  be  practised.  Eagles,  kites  and 
other  birds  of  prey,  as  well  as  cats,  weasels  and  polecats,  are  great 
enemies  of  rabbits.  The  Norfolk  warreners  catch  the  birds  by  traps 
placed  on  the  tops  of  stumps  or  trees,  or  artificial  hillocks  of  conical 
form,  on  which  they  naturally  alight."     Encyclop. 

Would  not  the  rearing  of  rabbits  be  profitable  in  this  country  t 
We  have  no  eagles  or  kites  to  molest  them  ;  they  breed  very  rapid- 
ly ;  their  food  is  cheap  and  easily  provided;  a  fence  to  enclose  a 
warren  can  be  made  of  boards,  at  no  great  expense,  which  will  keep 
out  cats  and  polecats;  and  as  for  weasels,  we  have  but  very  few  of 
them  in  this  country. 

26 


202  FARIMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

RATS.  These  are  a  very  unprofitable  stock  for  the  farmer  to 
maintain,  and  the  sooner  he  disposes  of  them  the  better.  For  thi« 
purpose  the  most  effectual  method  is  to  give  them  arsenic.  Set  some 
plates  where  the  rats  frequent,  with  a  Httle  ■wheat-flow  or  other  food 
which  they  like,  pot  into  them;  let  them  bait  on  this  for  two  or  threr 
nights ;  then  add  a  little  arsenic  to  the  flour,  mix  it  well  together, 
and  place  it  as  before,  and  they  will  eat  it  very  readily,  which  will 
soon  dispatch  them.  When  this  dose  is  administered,  care  should  be 
taken  to  cover  the  milk-pans  and  whatever  else  they  c»n  drink  at ; 
as  the  arsenic  occasions  a  burning  thirst,  which  induces  them  to  go 
in  quest  of  whatever  will  quench  it.  Perhaps  it  would  be  as  well  to 
set  some  water  for  them  to  drink  at. 

A  trap  for  catching  rats  is  made  as  follows,  and  is  much  recom- 
mended : — Take  a  barrel,  or  keg,  with  one  head  out ;  put  in  it  water 
enough  to  cover  the  bottom  about  two  inches  deep ;  in  the  middle  of 
this  set  a  piece  of  brick  or  stone;  cover  the  head  of  the  cask  with  ft 
piece  of  smooth  dried  sheep-skin,  or  perhaps  good  smooth  stiff  paper 
will  answer;  in  the  middle  of  this  cut  two  slits  about  six  inches  long, 
at  right  angles,  so  as  to  form  a  cross ;  immediately  over  this  suspend 
the  best  kind  of  bait  for  the  rats,  placed  sufficiently  high; — now  when 
the  rat  comes  to  take  the  bait,  in  reaching  up  to  it  be  slips  into  the 
hole,  by  the  four  corners  of  the  parchment  or  paper  giving  way. 
Be  now  gets  upon  the  brick  in  the  middle  of  the  water,  and  begins 
to  utter  signs  of  his  distress;  this  brings  others  to  him,  who  fall  in  ia 
the  same  manner.  Presently  they  begin  to  fight  for  the  possession  of 
the  brick,  and  the  noise  of  this  brings  others,  who  fall  in  in  like  man- 
ner ;  and  thus  all  within  hearing  of  this  scene  of  confusion  follow  oa 
and  share  the  same  fate. 

Another  good  method  is,  by  suitable  baits  to  draw  them  into  a  large 
box,  or  cage,  by  means  of  an  entrance  guarded  within  with  sharp- 
pointed  wires,  similar  to  those  of  the  mouse  cage. 

While  the  farmer  is  divesting  himself  of  his  rats,  let  him  not  negiect 
bis  mice,  for  they,  too,  are  quite  expensive  in  keeping. 

REED;  (Arumlo.)  A  species  of  this  plant  is  wonderfully  pro- 
ductive in  the  rich  bottom  lands  of  the  Missisippi  and  elsewhere  in 
that  direction.  Many  of  the  plants  are  said  to  grow  twenty  fert 
high,  and  they  grow  so  thick  that  it  is  diflficult  to  get  through  them. 
Cattle  are  very  fond  of  them,  and  subsist  almost  entirely  upon  them 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  But  where  they  are  fed  off  year  afHr 
year  they  at  length  disappear. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  203 

Would  not  this  plant  be  valuable  for  cultivating  as  an  artificial 
grass,  particularly  for  soiling  ?  See  article  Soiling.  If  this  reed,  or 
cane  as  it  is  usually  called,  would  grow  after  repeated  mowings  dur- 
ing the  summer  season,  it  would  probably  be  found  very  valuable  as 
an  article  of  food  for  cattle.  By  cultivating  it,  and  sowing  it  thicker 
than  it  grows  in  its  natural  state,  it  would  be  much  improved  as  an 
article  of  food.  It  would  be  dearable  to  have  some  trials  made  of 
this  plant.  If  it  would  start  again  after  every  mowing,  it  would  pro- 
bably yield  double  of  any  artificial  grass  now  cultivated. 

There  are  smaller  species  of  this  plant  which  infest  low  grounds 
where  the  soil  is  good  which  are  not  relished  by  cattle  for  food. 
These  are  easily  destroyed  by  draining  the  land,  or  by  ploughing  it 
up  in  ridges.     Soot  and  ashes  will  also  kill  them. 

RI OGLING  :  A  name  given  to  a  half  castrated  animal.  A  horse 
of  this  descripUoa  is  as  troublesome  as  a  stallion,  and  yet  not  fit  to  be 
relied  on  as  one,  «  A  ridgling  hog,"  says  Mr.  Deane,  «  will  never 
be  fat,  nor  grow  so  large  as  a  barrow,  till  his  castration  be  complet- 
ed ;  as  it  may  be  by  making  an  opening  in  the  belly,  when  the  case 
is  most  difficult.  They  should  either  be  killed  young  or  completely 
castrated.  The  flesh  of  a  ridgling  pig  is  good,  but  that  of  an  old  one 
brawny  and  disagreeable.'* 


204  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 


s. 


SALT.    See  article  Manures. 

SALTS.  Various  kinds  of  salts  are  foutHi  iii  plants:  They  are. 
therefore,  essential  ingredients  in  their  composition ;  of  course,  if  any 
soil  contains  but  little  of  the  requisite  salts,  the  plants  which  most  re- 
quire any  of  the  dififerent  kinds  must  languish  for  want  of  them  :  In 
such  case,  a  mere  trifle  of  such  as  may  be  wanted,  properly  distributed 
in  the  soil  must  have  a  surprising  0|)eration  as  a  manure.  In  short, 
■whatever  the  soil  is  deficient  of,  which  is  an  essential  part  of  the  food 
of  plants,  a  little  of  that  given  to  the  soil  will  have  a  tenfold  greater 
effect  than  any  other  manure  would  have,  though  that  manure  might 
produce  equally  beneficial  eflects  in  another  soil  where  it  is  most 
wanted. 

Probably  common  sea  salt  is,  in  general,  more  wanted  in  soils  which 
are  out  of  the  reach  of  the  sea  atmosphere  than  any  other.  A  little, 
therefore,  of  this,  where  it  is  most  requisite,  may  have  a  great  effect ; 
and  more  might  be  injurious;  for  if  this  article  be  too  plentifully  a;;- 
plied  to  the  soil,  it  destroys  all  vegetation. 

An  intelligent  farmer  once  observed  to  me,  that  during  our  revolu- 
tionary war,  when  common  salt  was  so  dear  that  he  could  not  afford 
to  give  it  to  his  cattle,  his  barn  dung  seemed  to  do  his  lands  but  little 
service;  but  that  he  had  found  the  case  much  altered  since,  when  by 
the  cheapness  of  this  article  he  was  enabled  to  deal  out  sufficient  ofit 
to  his  stock. 

I  lately  saw  a  small  pamphlet,  published  in  Maryland,  describing 
the  surprising  effects  which  common  salt,  mixed  with  a  small  quantity 
of  rich  mould,  and  thus  sown  on  the  soil,  produced  ;  particularly  in 
crops  of  flax  and  wheat.  The  lands  on  which  these  experiments 
had  been  made,  were  sufficiently  remote  from  the  sea;  hut  few  cattle 
were  ever  raised  on  them ;  of  course  the  soil  has  had  little  or  no  salt 
since  it  was  cleared.  This  soil  had  also  been  exhausted  with  the  cul- 
"ture  of  tobacco  and  Indian  corn.     All  these  circumstances  may 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  205 

have  contributed  to  render  a  little  of  this  manure  of  singular  use 
to  it. 

Mr.  Deane  says,  he  has  always  found  common  salt  much  more 
beueticial  to  the  soil  when  mixed  with  composts  than  when  sown 
in  its  crude  state.  He  also  mentions  some  trials  made  of  this  ma- 
nure on  onions,  turnips,  and  carrots,  the  latter  only  of  which  he 
found  benefitted  by  it;  but,  perhaps,  the  manner  of  the  application 
lo  the  two  former,  and  the  quantity  given,  were  both  unsuitable. 

Mr.  Elliott  mentions  five  bushels  of  crude  salt  being  sown  on  an 
acre  of  flax,  which  had  a  surprising  effect;  and  that  he  found  it 
very  beneficial  when  sown  on  wheat.  Let  the  farmer  make  various 
trials  of  this  manure,  and  use  it  as  he  finds  it  best. 

See  further,  article  Sea-Water, 

SALTING  OP  MEx\T.  In  packing  down  pork,  sprinkle  in  what 
is  equal  to  four  quarts  of  rock-salt  to  a  barrel ;  then  make  a  pickle  suf- 
ficient to  cover  all  the  meat,  as  strong  as  it  can  be  made  with  salt, 
and  when  cold,  pour  it  on.  When  the  pickle  becomes  much  coloured 
with  the  blood  of  the  meat  draw  it  off,  beil  it,  take  off  the  scum,  till  it 
becomes  clear,  and  apply  it  again.  Repeat  this,  if  the  pickle  again 
becomes  coloured  too  much,  and  add  more  fresh  brine,  if  necessary. 
In  this  way,  pork  will  keep  sweet  throughout  the  ensuing  summer,  and 
will  be  free  of  rust. 

This  method  is  also  good  for  preserving  beef,  though  the  following 
19  better. 

For  a  barrel  of  beef,  says  Mr.  Deane,  take  four  quarts  of  rock-salt 
pounded  fine ;  eight  ounces  of  saltpetre,  and  five  pounds  of  brown 
fiugar;  mix  them  well  together,  and  with  these  ingredients  pack  the 
meat  down  very  closely,  so  as  that  they  will  of  themselves  cover  the 
whole  with  brine.  The  next  spring  draw  off  the  brine,  clarify  it,  as 
before  directed,  adding  a  little  salt  to  it,  and  apply  it  again,  and  the 
beef  will  keep  very  sweet  and  fine  tasted  during  the  whole  summer 
following. 

This  method  of  curing  meat,  it  will  be  seen,  is  something  similar  to 
the  best  method  of  curing  butter,  and  it  is  also  an  excellent  method 
for  curing  pork  and  hams.  The  ham  of  some  of  the  southern  states  is 
allowed  to  be  equal  to  that  of  Westphalia ;  but  whether  this  be  owing 
to  this  method  of  curing,  to  the  climate,  or  to  the  manner  of  keeping 
hogs  there,  is  perhaps  uncertain.  When  hams  have  been  sufficiently 
cured  in  this,  or  any  other  way,  they  should  be  smeared  over  with 
molasses — smoked  sufficiently  and  suddenly — the  quicker  the  better : 


206  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

and  let  them  then  be  well  sprinkled  over  with  slaked  lime  and  put 
away  in  casks  filled  with  bran,  to  keep  during  the  summer.  The  lim? 
ivill  serve  to  keep  all  insects  from  them. 

SAND.  Considerable  has  been  said  of  this  earth.  See  articles 
Earths  and  Manures. 

Pure  sand  is  entirely  barren.  What  are  usually  called  sandy  soils 
must  contain  a  mixture  of  other  earths,  if  they  possess  a  greater  or 
less  degree  of  fertility. 

The  diflBculty  with  sandy  soils  is,  that  they  do  not  sufficiently  rs- 
tain  moisture,  unless  they  have  a  close  understratum.  Where  this  is 
not  the  case,  they  are  only  permanently  benefitted  by  carting  earth* 
on  them  which  are  most  retentive  of  moisture. 

SAP.  Plants  derive  their  sap  principally  from  the  roots.  Before 
it  has  entered  these,  it  is  called  the  food  of  plants.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  absorbed  by  the  capillary  roots  in  the  form  of  va|>or,  which,  being 
rarified  by  the  heat  of  the  atmosphere,  ascends,  and  extends  through 
all  the  pores  of  the  plant ;  and  here  is  imperceptibly  carried  on  that 
chemical  process  which  eventually  serves  to  bring  it  to  perfection. 

SCRATCHES.  This  is  a  disease  in  the  legs  of  horses,  occasion- 
ed by  bad  blood,  or  too  hard  labor.  The  skin  of  the  legs  becomes 
cracked  open,  emitting  a  reddish  coloured  humor.  To  cure  the  dis- 
ease, wash  the  cracks  with  soap-suds,  and  then  rub  them  twice  a  day 
with  an  ointment  of  hog's-lard,  mixed  with  a  little  sublimate  mercury. 

SEA-WATER.  This  fluid  is  said  .to  contain  nitre,  sulphur,  and 
oil,  besides  common  salt,  and  is  therefore  preferable  to  that  article  for 
manuring,  either  when  put  in  composts,  or  otherwise. 

Mr.  Deane  meotions  one  hundred  hills  of  potatoes  which  had  two 
quarts  of  this  water  applied  to  each,  immediately  after  planting,  and 
that  the  quantity  of  potatoes  in  these  hills  was  half  as  much  again  as 
the  same  number  of  adjoining  hills  produced.  Probably  half  the  quan- 
tity of  water  applied  to  each  hill  would  have  had  a  better  effect.  He 
mentions  also  a  piece  of  flax,  one  side  of  which  was  short  and  yellow, 
but  which  by  being  sprinkled  with  this  water,  in  ten  days  equalled 
the  other  side,  and  eventually  outgrew  it. 

The  above  was  on  clay  ground  adjoining  the  sea-shore.  The  wa- 
tering of  the  potatoes  cost  about  an  hour's  labor  of  one  man.  Mr. 
Deane  says,  its  effects  when  applied  to  sandy  land  appeared  to  be 
equally  great.  He  recommends  steeping  the  seeds  in  the  water  be- 
fore sowing  or  planting,  and  applying  it  to  the  grouod  immediately  af-. 
ter  they  have  been  committed  to  the  earth- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  207 

It  would  be  easy  to  carry  this  water  some  distance  on  the  land  to  ad- 
vantage. For  instance,  take  a  one  horse  cart,  and  suspend  a  tight  box, 
rightly  shaped,  under  the  axletree,  the  box  having  a  hole  in  the  upper 
side :  You  then  drive  this  cart  into  the  water,  so  as  to  cover  the  box, 
and  it  fills  through  the  hole  :  When  it  is  carted  out  to  where  you  want 
it,  it  may  be  sprinkled  out,  evenly  over  the  ground,  as  the  cart  moves 
along,  in  the  following  easy  manner :  You  take  a  tube,  say  twelve 
feet  long,  and,  say  an  inch  square  within ;  on  one  side  of  it  bore  small 
holes,  say  three  inches  apart,  and  close  the  ends  of  the  tube  :  You 
then  attach  this  tube  to  the  under  side  of  the  box,  crossways,  at  either 
end  of  it ;  then  the  water  is  let  out  of  the  box  into  the  tube  by  an 
aperture  for  the  purpose ;  and  as  the  cart  moves  along,  the  water  runs 
out  of  each  of  the  small  holes  in  the  tube,  and  thus  sprinkles  over  a 
piece  of  ground  of  twelve  feet  wide,  till  the  whole  is  exhausted  :  With 
the  next  load  you  begin  where  the  water  ceased  running  before,  and 
thus  continue  the  watered  strip  across  the  field.  You  then  take  ano- 
ther strip  of  twelve  feet  wide  adjoining  that  last  watered,  and  thus 
you  proceed. 

With  this  machine,  a  man  with  a  horse,  could  probably  draw  out, 
and  spread,  twenty-five  loads  per  day,  to  the  distance  of  half  a  mile  : 
and  this  quantity  would  perhaps  be  sufficient  at  one  time  Cor  an  acre 
of  ground.  At  the  same  rate  he  could  draw  out  enough  for  half  an 
acre  to  the  distance  of  a  mile. 

Perhaps  the  better  way  would  be  to  have  a  valve  in  the  under  side 
of  the  box,  which  would  press  open  to  let  the  water  in,  and  close 
again  when  the  box  had  filled.  The  wheels  of  the  cart  which  carries 
it  should  be  pretty  high,  so  as  to  have  the  under  skle  of  the  box  as 
much  as  a  foot  from  the  ground. 

It  has,  I  believe,  been  generally  supposed,  that  salt  or  sea- Water  ha« 
not  much  effect  as  a  manure,  on  soils  lying  near  the  sea ;  but  if  thii 
be  a  mistake,  and  the  cases  above  reported  by  Mr.  Deane  be  found  a 
Standard  specimen  of  the  effects  to  be  constantly  produced  from  this 
manure,  it  would  perhaps  be  found  profitable  to  adopt  means  for  carry- 
ing the  water  as  far  into  the  interior  as  possible.  This,  where  the 
country  is  level,  and  rises  but  little  above  the  sea,  would  be  attended 
with  no  difficulty,  save  the  expense  of  the  aqueduct  for  carrying  the 
water.  This  could  be  made  of  wood,  and  as  it  would  be  constantly 
filled  with  salt  water,  this  would  probably  preserve  it  for  a  century. 
The  water  is  (o  be  forced  up  the  tube  of  the  aqueduct  by  the  aid  of  a 


208  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

plunger  and  valves,  which  is  to  be  drove  by  a  little  wind  machinery, 
whix;h  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  describe. 

Whether  the  profits  to  be  derived  from  putting  a  plan  similar  to  the 
foregoing  into  operation  would  warrant  the  expense,  must  depend  up- 
on the  results  of  experiments  to  be  proi)erly  and  faithfully  made.  Our 
sea-coast,  and  the  contiguous  islands,  offer  millions  of  acres  to  l)e  be- 
nefitted by  such  a  method  of  fertilizing  lands,  if  the  plan  should  be 
found  advantageous. 

SEEDS.  Many  seeds  will  retain  their  vegetative  faculty  for  seve- 
rcil  years;  others  again  cannot  be  made  to  germinate  after  the  first 
year,  unless  uncommon  pains  be  taken  for  that  purpose. 

Sfe  article  Germination  of  Plants. 

All  seeds  require  fresh  air,  and  if  long  deprived  of  this  they  will 
lose  their  vegetative  quality.  If  some  kinds  be  buried  deeply  under 
ground,  however,  they  will  retain  this  quality  for  twenty  or  thirty 
years. 

Some  seeds  will  lie  a  year,  sometimes  two  or  three  years,  before 
they  will  come  up;  and  for  this  reason,  when  seeds  are  brought  from 
a  distant  country  and  sown,  the  ground  should  not  be  disturbed  during 
that  length  of  time. 

Seeds  of  the  dry  kinds  are  best  preserved  in  their  pods,  or  natural 
coverings ;  but  those  of  all  soft  fruits,  &c.  should  be  taken  out,  clean- 
sed and  dried. 

SHEEP.  Mr.  Livingston  has  treated  this  subject  with  so  much 
research  and  ability,  that  the  reader  need  require  little  or  no  further 
information  than  what  his  essays  contain ;  but  as  this  work  would  be 
imperfect  without  treating  of  this  important  article,  and  as  the  writ- 
ings of  Mr.  Livingston  and  others  are  too  voluminous  for  insertion,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  condense  the  subject,  so  as  to  present  it  in  a 
small  compass. 

Animals  undergo  changes  by  domestication.  Qualities  which  they 
possessed  in  the  wild  state,  but  which  are  no  longer  useful  in  the  do- 
mestic, become  less  and  less  visible;  and  owing  perhaps  to  this  cir- 
cumstance and  to  others,  even  their  appearance  becomes  more  or  less 
altered.  The  ears  of  wild  animals  are  erect,  which  enables  them  to 
hear  with  more  acuteness;  but  some  of  the  sheep  of  Sicilj'  and  of 
Italy,  says  Mr.  Livingston,  have  been  so  long  under  the  protection 
of  man,  where  this  quality  is  not  so  requisite,  that  their  ears  have  be- 
come pendant.    Lord  Kaims  ebserves,  that  when  sheep  run  wild  they 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  209 

go  in  droves;  that  the  males  are  the  protectors  of  the  flock,  and  that 
the  strongest  claims  precedence  of  the  rest ;  that  when  they  lie  down 
at  night,  some  stand  as  sentinels  while  the  rest  sleep ;  but  these  traits 
of  instinctive  sagacity  they  in  a  great  measure  losie  when  man  be- 
comes their  protector. 

M.  Buffon  and  others  have  supposed  the  monjlou  inusmou^  or  argali, 
which  is  still  found  in  the  wild  state,  to  be  the  original  stock  of  the 
present  sheep.  This  animal  is  swift  of  foot,  and  in  cold  climates  has 
merely  a  coat  of  wool  under  a  coat  of  hair.  In  warm  climates  it  has 
nothing  but  a  coat  of  hair ;  and  such  is  the  case  with  sheep  Which 
have  been  long  accustomed  to  such  climatesi  It  would  seem  to  be 
Ihe  economy  of  nature  that  some  graminivorous  animals  when  do- 
mesticated, but  still  exposed  to  the  rigors  of  the  seasons,  become 
more  inert,  of  course  possess  less  animal  heat,  and  therefore  require  a 
more  woolly  coat :  While  others  of  the  carnivorous  kind,  which  are 
more  sheltered  by  man,  but  whose  habits  still  require  their  wonted  ac- 
tivity, and  of  course  retain  their  animal  heat,  require  less  clothing,  ot 
a  mere  coat  of  coarse  hair.  This  perhaps  may  be  the  reason  why 
sheep  have  more  wool  and  less  activity  than  the  argali ;  and  why 
dogs  have  coarser  hair  than  wolves*  If  this,  however,  be  thought 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  difference  between  the  argali  and  such 
sheep  as  shed  their  coats  yearly,  it  is  still  difficult  to  assign  a  reason 
why  the  merino  sheep  never  sheds  its  coat  5  for  this,  if  left  on  for 
years,  does  not  fall  off,  but  constantly  increases  in  length  and  quan- 
tity. Probably  different  climates  and  soils  have  done  much  in  pro- 
ducing marked  differences  among  sheep;  and  probably  different  kinds, 
as  we  now  find  them,  have  descended  from  stock  which  were  of  the 
same  genus,  but  possessing  properties  different  from  each  other* 

Mr.  Livingston  observes,  that  "as  this  quadruped  has  probably 
been  found  throughout  all  the  mountainous  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  perhaps  even  in  Africa;  as  its  young  are  easily  tamed;  as  its 
milk,  its  flesh  and  its  skin,  are  extremely  valuable  to  man  in  a  savage 
state,  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  was  amongst  the  first  quadrupeds 
that  were  domesticated ;  and  from  this  citcumstance  it  has  perhaps 
wrought  no  less  a  change  in  man,  than  man  has  in  it," — that  it  "  is 
highly  probable  we  are  indebted  to  it  for  the  conversion  of  man  from 
the  wild  wandering  savage  to  the  inild  and  gentle  shepherd." 

It  may  be  found  equally  true  that  different  soils  are  best  suited  to 
different  breeds  of  sheep,  and  that  the  soil  often  serves  eventually  to 

27 


2m  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

produce  a  difference  in  slieep.  "  Fat  pastures,"  says  Mortimef, 
*'  breed  straisht,  tall  sheej),  and  the  barren  hills  short,  square  ones." 
The  island  called  SmiiJi'ii  Island,  lying  off  the  eastern  cape  of  Vir- 
ginia, has  been  found  remarkable  for  producing  a  breed  of  sheep  of 
uncommonly  fine  wool.  The  large  long-uooled  sheep  of  Great-Bri- 
tain require  rich  pastures ;  and  a  moist  soil  will  suit  them  better  per- 
haps than  it  will  any  other  sheep.  A  wet  soil,  salt  marshes  except- 
ed, is,  however,  unfriendly  to  sheep  of  all  kinds.  The  merino  sheep 
require  good  pastures,  and  such  as  is  produced  on  dry  soils.  Farm- 
ers, in  stocking  their  farms  with  sheep,  ought  to  pay  attention  to  the 
selection  of  such  as  are  best  suited  to  their  soil.  Much  of  the  high 
moist  lands  of  this  and  the  neighbouring  counties,  it  is  believed, 
would  be  found  tolerably  suitable  for  raising  the  large  long-woolled 
English  sheep. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  our  country  should  be  stocked  with  sheepf 
of  various  kinds,  iu  order  to  supply  itself  with  the  various  sorts  of 
cloths  which  are  necessary  in  different  uses.  In  England  they  have 
the  Tccs-watcr,  the  Lincolnshire,  and  the  Dartmoor  breeds,  wliich 
yield  fleeces  of  long  coarse  wool,  weighing  on  an  average  from  eight 
to  eleven  pounds;  and  the  average  weight  of  their  carcases  per  quar- 
ter is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds.  The  wool  of  these  sheep, 
and  of  the  Heath,  Exmore  and  Berkshire  breeds,  which  are  smaller, 
and  have  still  coarser  wool,  is  proper  for  the  manufacture  of  blankets, 
carpets,  Sec.  The  Nc7v- Leicestershire,  or  Bakervelt  breed,  and  the 
Cartjvold  and  Romney  marsh  breeds,  have  also  long  wool,  but  some- 
what finer,  being  better  fitted  for  the  manufacture  of  worsted  fabricks; 
and  the  average  weight  of  their  fleeces  is  from  eight  to  nine  pounds 
— the  average  weight  of  their  carcases  |)er  quarter  is  from  twenty-two 
to  twenty-four  pounds.  The  Bakewell  is  an  improved  breed,  which 
was  engrafted  upon  some  of  those  before  mentioned,  and  are  highly 
esteemed  for  the  fatness  of  their  carcases  and  the  fine  taste  of  their 
mutton.  In  addition  to  these  the  English  have  various  other  breeds, 
besides  the  merino,  yielding  fleeces  of  short  wool  of  various  quanti- 
ties and  qualities,  the  finest  of  which  are  the  Dunjaced  and  Shetland 
breeds;  the  next  finest  is  the  Hereford  ox  Rj/eland  breet),  and  the  next 
the  Smith-Down.  Mr.  Livingston  says  the  latter  very  much  resemble 
our  conmion  sheep,  having  wool  about  equally  fine,  and  that  in  Eng- 
land they  are  esteemed  next  to  the  Bakewell  breed. 

Mr.  Custis,  of  Virginia,  is  rearing  a  new  breed,  which  he  calls  the 
Arlington  sheep,  that  yield  fleeces  of  long  wool,  well  fitted  for  the 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  213 

manufacture  of  worsted  fabricks.  They  are  a  mixture  of  the  Bake- 
well  breed  with  a  long-woolled  Persian  ram,  which  was  imported  by 
General  Washington.  They  promise  to  be  a  valuable  acquisition  to 
our  country.  In  adtiition  to  these  are  the  Smith's  Island  sheep,  be- 
fore mentioned,  which  are  also  the  property  of  Mr.  Custis,  and  which 
on  account  of  the  fineness  and  lareeness  of  their  fleeces,  promise  to  be 
highly  valuable,  provided  the  breed  do  oot  degenerate  in  a  few  years 
when  taken  from  that  island.  They  are  shorn  twice  a  year,  and  some 
of  the  fleeces  weigh  four  pounds  at  each  shearing. 

Another  breed  of  sheep  ought  to  be  noticed,  as  being  peculiar  to 
this  country ;  these  are  the  otter  sheep,  so  called  on  account  of  the 
length  of  their  bodies  and  the  shortness  of  their  legs.  They  wer» 
first  found  in  some  of  our  Atlantic  islands,  and  are  indeed  a  rickety, 
crippled  looking  race.  Their  wool  is  of  a  medium  fineness,  and  of  a 
medium  length ;  it  is  neither  of  a  proper  length  for  combing,  nor  yet 
for  broadcloths.  The  advantages  of  this  breed  consist  chiefly  in  their 
inability  to  be  mischievous,  in  leaping  fences,  <tc.  and  their  disadvan- 
tages consist  in  their  proportionate  inability  to  escape  from  dogs,  &:c. 
But  the  man  of  taste  and  feeling  will  make  another  objection  to  them 
— their  form  is  not  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  their  rickety,  hobbling 
gait,  is  calculated  to  excite  pity  instead  of  pleasure. 

Another  breed  of  sheep,  which  are  found  in  almost  every  quartet 
of  the  globe,  are  the  broad-tailed  sheep.  These  are  of  different  kinds, 
and  yield  fleeces  of  diSerent  qualities  in  different  climates.  In  the 
Levant  their  wool  is  fine,  at  the  Cape  of  Good-Hope  it  is  coarse,  and  at 
JMadagascar  it  is  mere  hair.  They  are  generally  larger  than  the  Eu- 
ropean sheep,  and  the  tails  of  one  kind  weigh  in  many  instances  fifty 
pounds;  being  "so  weighty  that  the  shepherds  are  compelled  to 
place  two  little  wheels  under  each  to  enable  the  sheep  to  drag  them." 
"  The  composition  of  this  excrescence,"  sa)'s  Mr.  Livingston,  "  is 
said  to  be  a  mixture  of  flesh  with  a  great  proportion  of  fat,  and  to  be 
very  delicate  food :  but  the  animal  has  little  other  fat,  the  tail  being 
in  him  the  repository  of  that  fat  which  lays  about  the  loins  of  other 
sheep." 

As  it  is  hardly  probable  that  this  excrescence  couW  have  been  in-! 
herent  in  the  original  stock  from  whence  these  sheep  descended,  but 
has  most  probably  been  produced  either  by  accident  or  by  art,  it  ia 
perhaps  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  instances  to  be  found  of  an  a  I 
deration  produced  in  the  form  of  an  animal  by  domestication. 


212  PARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

A  yearling  sheep  has  at  its  first  ghearing  two  broad  teeth  befbnT) 
beside  its  narrow  teeth;  when  sheared  the  second  Ume,  it  ha*  four; 
the  third  time,  six;  and  the  fourth,  eight.  They  are  then  said  to  be 
JitU  vwidked.  The  teeth  of  ewes  begin  to  decay  at  the  age  of  fire 
years,  those  of  wethers  at  seven,  and  of  rams  at  eight.  At  this  age  & 
ram  should  be  castrated,  and  turned  oflf  to  fatten  with  other  old  sheep. 
Ewes  \nll  fatten  faster  during  pregnancy  than  at  any  other  time.  If 
properly  kept,  and  do  accident  befalls  them  during  pregnancy,  thejr  are 
capable  of  yeaning  till  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve;  bat  they  frequently 
become  barren  much  sooner,  by  reason  of  poor  keeping,  or  by  injuries 
received  during  pregnancy.  When  this  is  the  case,  aod  they  grow- 
weakly,  they  should  be  fattened  with  other  old  sheep.  Those  set 
apart  for  fatting  should  be  kept  separate,  on  good  feed,  and  have  some 
Indian  meal  daily.  It  is  said  that  a  sheep  is  never  made  very  fat 
but  once,  and  that  then  is  the  proper  time  to  kill  it ;  but  perhaps  this 
is  not  founded  in  truth. 

The  proper  time  for  shearing  is  when  the  weather  has  set  in  pretty 
varm,  but  sooner  where  the  wool  is  falling  oflf.  The  wool  of  merino 
sheep  must  be  washed  after  shearing,  as  it  cannot  l>e  washed  to  any 
effect  while  on  their  backs.  The  shearing  of  these  may  be  later,  aa 
4heir  wool  never  falls  off.  Sheep  of  the  common  kinds  may  have 
their  wool  washed  while  on  their  backs :  but  in  that  case  they  should 
be  kept  some  days  previous  lo  shearing  in  a  clean  pasture,  io  order 
that  their  wool  may  again  imbibe  some  of  the  oil  which  is  lost  by 
irashing,  which  will  render  the  shearing  more  easy,  and  require  les» 
oil  to  be  afterwards  added  for  spinning. 

In  shearing,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  cut  them;  and  this  is  moro 
particularly  necessary  with  the  merino  sheep,  whose  fleece  is  so  close 
as  to  render  this  operation  much  more  slow  and  difficult,  double  the 
time  at  least  being  requisite  for  shearing  one  of  these  that  is  neces- 
sary for  one  of  the  common  kind.  Would  not  shears  with  blades 
much  narrorvcT  than  those  of  the  common  kind  be  much  the  best  for 
gihearing  these  sheep  ?  In  England  it  is  a  common  practice  after 
shearing  to  smear  the  bodies  of  the  sheep  with  a  mixture  of  tar  and 
fresh  butter,  which  serves  to  cure  the  wounds  in  the  skin,  aod  to  for- 
tify their  bodies  against  the  cold.  This  mixture  may  be  improved 
by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  sulphur.  The  sheep  should 
again  be  anointed  in  the  month  of  August,  by  introducing  the  oint- 
ment from  head  to  tail,  and  also  on  the  sides  aod  back,  by  parting  the 
wool  for  the  purpose,    This  composition  should,  at  all  events,  be  a|»- 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  21 S 

plied  to  the  wounds.  It  serves  eCFectually  to  destroy  all  the  ticks, 
ivhSch  are  very  pernicious  to  sheep.  The  practice  of  penning  up  large 
flocks  of  sheep  together  in  a  close  place  during  the  shearing  is  very 
injuiiicious;  thfy  should  be  penned  up  in  the  o[)en  air,  and  but  a  few 
brought  together  at  a  time.  The  common  practice  of  tying  the  legs 
of  the  sheep  together  while  shearing,  is  hurtful  to  them ;  as  it  com- 
presses them  into  a  situation  which  is  unnatural  and  painful.  Rather 
let  each  foot  be  tied  by  itself,  in  its  natural  position,  to  a  small  piece 
of  wood,  with  cross  pieces  at  each  end,  which  may  be  easily  contriv- 
ed and  made  for  the  purpose. 

During  cold  rains  and  cold  nights,  after  shearing,  they  should  be 
placed  where  they  can  go  into  their  house,  or  place  of  shelter,  when 
they  please;  as  they  know  best  when  they  want  shelter,  and  when 
they  become  so  warm  as  to  require  the  open  air.  They  should  at  all 
limes,  but  particularly  at  this,  have  plenty  of  salt,  as  this  is  a  stimu- 
lant which  enables  them  the  better  to  withstand  the  cold.  A  warm 
sun  is  hurtful  to  the  backs  of  sheep  after  shearing,  and  for  this  reason 
their  pasture  should  have  some  shade,  to  which  they  can  retire  dur- 
ing the  heat  of  the  day.  After  shearing,  their  skins  should  he  care- 
fully examined  to  see  if  they  have  any  appearance  of  the  scab,  and 
those  which  have,  should  be  kept  apart  from  the  rest  till  cured,  as 
this  disease  is  contagious.  This,  too,  is  the  proper  time  to  examine 
them  as  to  their  age  and  health,  their  hodily  defects,  and  also  as  to  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  their  fleeces :  Those  which  are  found  old  and 
broken  mouthed — sickly  and  infirm — ill  formed — ewes  that  are  bad 
purses,  and  lose  (heir  lambs  from  want  of  milk — those  whose  wool  is 
in  small  quantities,  which  is  often  the  effect  of  age  or  sickness — and 
those  whose  wool  is  bad,  either  by  being  mixed  with  short  hairs,  or 
which  are  rough  on  the  thighs ;  these  should  all  be  marked,  in  order 
to  turn  them  olT,  and  be  put  in  good  pasture  for  fatting. 

The  wool  of  5'earling  sheep  should  be  kept  by  itself,  because  not 
having  the  same  texture  or  strength  which  the  wool  of  older  sheep 
has,  it  will  make  the  cloth  shrink  unequally  if  mixed  with  such  wool. 
The  other  fleeces  may  be  sorted  at  shearing  time,  making  separate 
parcels  of  the  thighs,  the  belly,  and  the  back  and  sides.  Wool  should 
not  be  kept  long  without  washing,  as  in  that  case  it  is  liable  to  ferment 
and  spoil  in  hot  weather. 

After  shearing,  the  horned  sheep  should  be  examined  to  see  that 
their  horns  do  not  press  on  the  scull,  or  endanger  the  eyes,  either  of 
which  may  kill  the  aoimal.    Where  this  is  the  case  the  horns  are  to 


214  par:\ier'S  assistant. 

be  taken  off,  and  for  this  purpose  ^Ir.  Liringston  recommends  sawing 
them  off  with  a  fine  stiff-backed  saw,  then  to  apply  some  tar  to  the 
stumps,  aod  tie  a  double  linen  cloth  over  them   o  keep  off  the  6ie5. 

At  this  time  also  the  Iambs  should  be  docked,  castrated  and  mark- 
ed. Mr.  Livingston  recommends  the  Spanish  custom  of  docking  the 
tail,  as  conducive  to  cleanliness.  The  castration  is  best  performed 
by  taking  away  the  testicles  at  once.  This  operation  may  be  per- 
formed on  lambs  when  not  more  than  ten  days  old,  and  the  earlier 
this  is  done  the  finer  will  be  the  wool  and  their  flesh.  If  rain  or  coW 
■weather  succeeds  this  operation  before  they  are  cured,  they  should  be 
housed,  otherwise  they  will  be  in  danger  of  dying.  Another  method 
of  castration,  which  is  [)robably  best  for  grown  sheep,  is  to  tie  a  cord 
tightly  round  the  scrotum,  and  after  five  or  six  days,  when  the  part 
below  the  cord  is  dead,  cut  it  off  just  below  the  string,  and  tar  the 
wound.  This  is,  however,  a  dangerous  operation  when  the  weather 
is  warm;  cool  dry  weather  should  be  chosen  for  it.  "  In  Spain  it  is 
usual,  instead  of  either  of  these  operations,  to  twist  the  testicles  AA'ith- 
in  the  scrotum,  so  as  to  knot  the  cord  ;  in  w  hich  case  they  decay 
gradually,  without  injuring  the  sheep." 

Splaying  ewe  lambs  increases  their  wool,  makes  them  fatten  bet- 
ter, and  it  is  said  improves  the  taste  of  their  f3esh.  If  this  operation 
is  to  be  performed,  which  perhaps  will  seldom  be  found  advisable,  it 
should  not  be  attempted  before  the  lambs  are  six  weeks  old. 

Where  ewes  are  to  be  turned  off  for  fatting,  the  lambs  must  be 
weaned  early;  and  then  let  the  ewes  have  the  ram  again,  which 
will  make  them  fatten  better.  Lambs  thus  weaned  should  be  put  in 
a  pasture  of  young  tender  grass,  out  of  hearing  of  their  dams,  and  an 
old  wether  or  ewe  should  be  put  with  them.  Care  must  also  be  taken 
to  milk  the  ewes  every  day  or  two  for  the  first  week,  until  their  milk 
dries  up.  In  all  other  cases  the  weaning  of  lambs,  before  the  time 
•when  they  naturally  wean  themselves,  is  believed  to  be  by  no  means 
advisable,  as  the  lambs  are  injured  by  it  at  least  as  much  as  the  ewes 
are  benefitted.  This  may,  however,  be  found  advisable  where  it  is 
wished  to  have  the  ewes  impregnated  earlier  than  the  usual  lime,  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  very  early  lambs.  These,  ^Ir.  Livingston  ad- 
vises, should  be  shorn  tlie  first  year:  as  the  divesting  them  of  their 
fleece  may  be  a  matter  of  some  considerable  profit,  and  it  renders 
them  more  comfortable  during  the  summer.  Lambs,  however,  which 
do  not  come  until  the  snow  s  are  gone  are  always  most  easily  reared ; 
and  in  order  to  this,  the  ram  must  be  kept  from  the  ewes  in  the  fall 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  215 

flntil  about  five  months  previous  to  that  time.  Such  lambs  must  be 
kept  from  the  ram  until  the  second  fall. 

lu  Spain  twenty-five  ewes  are  allowed  to  one  ram.  Mr.  Livingston 
thinks  forty  by  no  means  too  many ;  and  instances  are  not  unfrequent 
where  one  ram  has  served  double  and  even  treble  that  number.  If 
the  ram,  however,  be  not  well  kept,  where  so  many  ewes  are  allowed, 
he  will  be  in  danger  of  being  injured. 

The  best  time  for  sheep  to  feed  in  pastures  is  while  the  dew  is  on; 
abd  this  they  will  readily  learn  if  there  be  no  water  in  the  fields 
where  they  are  kept.  Water  is  not  necessary  for  them  during  the 
season  of  pasture,  but  in  winter  they  should  have  free  access  to  it,  al- 
though they  can  do  many  days  without  it. 

When  sheep  are  badly  kept  they  take  colds,  and  discharge  a  mocus 
from  the  nose.  Good  feeding,  together  with  some  pine  boughs  given 
them  occasionally,  will  cure  this  complaint.  If  pine  boughs  cannot 
be  had,  spread  some  tar  over  a  board,  and  over  this  spread  some  salt, 
which  will  induce  the  sheep  to  lick  up  all  the  tar,  and  this  will  effect 
a  cure. 

According  to  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Daubenton,  a  celebrated 
French  agriculturalist,  it  seems  that  the  sheep  of  France,  which  are 
generally  of  the  height  of  about  twenty  inches,  eat  about  eight 
pounds  of  grass  per  day,  or  two  pcrunds  of  hay  per  day,  which  is 
about  the  same  thing;  as  eight  pounds  of  grass  when  dried  will  make 
but  two  pounds  of  hay.  An  acre  of  pasture,  then,  which  in  the  season 
would  yield  of  grass  what  would  be  equal  to  two  tons  of  hay,  would 
probably  support  about  eight  sheep  through  the  season.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  animals  consume  food  in  proportion  to 
their  size,  and  that  the  sheep  here  described  are  below  the  common 
size  of  sheep  in  this  country. 

Mr.  Daubenton  also' observes,  that  when  his  sheep  were  fed  on  dry 
fodder  during  the  Avinter  season  many  of  the  younger  ones,  and  those 
which  were  weakly,  dropped  off; — that  on  opening  these,  he  found 
the  food  in  the  third  stomach,  or  that  which  receives  the  food  after 
the  second  chewing,  to  be  so  dry  as  to  be  unfit  for  digestion,  and  to 
this  cause  he  ascribes  their  death.  This  state  of  the  stomach,  he 
very  justly  concludes,  is  produced  by  the  sudden  change  of  food  from 
grass  to  that  of  dry  fodder ;  and  the  remedy  pointed  out,  which  is 
very  natural,  is  merely  to  feed  them  with  a  due  proportion  of  sucu- 
lent  food.  For  this  purpose,  carrots,  potatoes,  turnips  and  cabbages, 
are  all  very  good :  and  though  cabbages  cannot  be  conveniently  used 


216  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

in  this  climate  for  this  purpose,  ret  the  root?  above  mentioned  mtiy 
be  kept  in  cellars,  buried  in  dry  sand,  and  occasionally  fed  out  to 
sheep  to  great  advantage. 

Feeding  ^heep  with  a  little  Indian  com,  about  half  a  gill  to  eacli 
per  day,  b  very  beneficial ;  it  keeps  the  flock  in  good  heart ;  it  enables 
the  ewes  to  rear  their  young  much  better:  and  it  serves  to  prevent 
the  wool  from  falling  off  in  the  spring.  Carrots,  potatoes^  6:c.  no 
doubt  answer  the  same  valuable  purpose. 

For  early  feeding  for  the  ewes  which  have  lambs,  a  small  field  of 
rye.  thickly  sown,  is  very  good.  They  may  be  taken  off  in  lime  for 
the  crop  to  come  to  maturity,  and  in  that  case  they  will  do  it  no  es- 
seutial  injury.  A  small  field  of  cabbage-turnips  would  prol«ah|y  be 
the  best  {See  article  Cabbages.)  Vetches,  clover,  tall  meadow- 
oats,  and  other  grasses  which  start  early,  are  also  very  good  for  ihif 
purpose. 

Sheep  should  have  hay  during  winter  of  the  best  quality,  and  for 
this  purpose  red  clover  is  esteemetl  the  best.  If  about  a  peck  of  ?alt 
vere  applied  to  every  ton  of  hay  when  carted  into  the  mow.  it  would 
no  doubt  be  found  very  good  for  them.  The  rack  in  w  hich  the  hay 
is  put  should  be  upright,  so  as  that,  in  feeding,  the  seeds  and  other 
matter  will  not  fall  into  the  wool  about  their  necks.  I'nder  the  rack 
a  trough  should  be  fixed,  whick  will  serve  for  catching  the  seeds  of 
the  hay,  as  well  as  for  feeding  the  sheep.  They  should  be  kept  by 
themselves,  and  not  suffered  to  run  among  other  cattle;  their  yard 
should  be  spacious,  though  in  proportion  to  ihe  Duml>er  in  the  fiock; 
and  their  shelter  should  be  close  over  head,  but  the  sides  not  so  close 
as  to  preclude  a  due  circulation  of  air  among  them.  Perhaps  it  is 
best  to  have  it  close  on  all  sides  but  the  south.  The  shelter  ought 
also  to  be  spacious,  so  as  not  to  crowd  them  too  closely  together; 
and  it  ought  to  have  some  small  apartments  in  which  to  keep  the 
ewes  a  few  days  previous  to  yeaning,  and  for  two  or  three  days  af- 
terwards. These  should  be  fed  during  this  time  with  succulent  food« 
and  their  apartments  should  be  kept  well  littered.  The  fence  rooadl 
the  sheep-yard  should  be  such  as  to  keep  out  dogs. 

If  the  flock  be  large,  so  that  a  separation  of  it  during  winter  would 
be  advisable  for  promoting  the  health  of  the  sheep,  the  better  way  is 
to  put  the  full  grown  wethers  by  themselves.  Thb  is  the  more  ad- 
risabie  l»ecaut^e  t^ey  do  not  require  so  good  keeping  a?  the  ewes  and 
young  sbeep ;  and  whea  kept  with  ibete  they  are  enabled,  from  their 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  217 

'snperior  strength,  to  take  the  beat  and  most  of  the  food  to  them- 
selves. 

In  regard  to  folding  sheep  on  small  or  on  large  pieces  of  ground,  see 
article  Folding. 

Flocks  of  sheep  thrive  much  better  by  being  changed  frequently; 
but  those  will  be  most  benefitted  which  are  taken  from  poor  pastures 
and  put  into  better.  Their  pastures  should  be  clear  of  weeds,  as  the 
burs  [(reduced  by  some  spoil  the  wool,  while  others  often  prove  hurt- 
ful to  them  by  eating;  they  should  also  be  clear  of  all  briars  and 
bushes,  for  these  serve  to  tear  off  much  of  their  wool  in  the  spring. 
Clover  is  the  best  pasture  for  them.  The  shrub  called  Imtrel  is 
poisonous  to  them  when  eaten,  and  ought  therefore  to  be  removed 
from  their  walks. 

To  prevent  wolves  from  killing  sheep,  says  Mr.  L'Hommedieu, 
make  an  ointment  composed  of  gun-powder  and  brimstone,  powdered 
fine  and  mixed  with  tar  and  currier's  oil,  and  with  this  anoint  the 
throats  of  the  sheep.  This  must  be  renewed  as  often  as  the  ointment 
loses  its  moisture,  which  will  be  four  or  five  times  in  a  season. — 
Wolves  have  been  seen  to  seize  sheep  anointed  in  this  manner, 
and  finding  their  throats  thus  fortified,  have  left  them  without  do- 
ing them  any  injury. 

Having  said  thus  much  of  sheep  in  general,  something  shall  now 
be  said  of  the  merino  sheep  in  particular. 

These  sheep  are  certainly  much  the  most  profitable  to  raise,  where 
the  soil  and  climate  are  suitable  to  them.  Perhaps  it  may  be  found 
that  some  parts  of  this  state  may  not  be  so  suitable  for  them  as  others; 
as  some  farmers  of  this  county  (Herkimer)  are  maldng  complaints  of 
being  unsuccessful  in  rearing  them.  The  climate,  and  much  of  the 
soil,  of  the  Mohawk  country  is  moist,  and  this  circumstance  may  per- 
haps not  prove  so  favorable  for  their  propagation  here.  Let  experi- 
ments, however,  be  fairly  and  fully  made  upon  them  before  any  hasty 
conclusions  are  drawn.  Most  of  the  sheep  of  this  kind  which  have 
been  brought  into  this  part  of  the  state  were  young,  and  such  as 
were  probably  rejected  from  the  flocks  of  those  who  sent  them  abroad 
for  sale.  The  last  two  winters  have  also  been  uncommonly  severe 
on  all  sheep. 

Mr.  Livingston  has  stated  the  result  of  his  sheep-shearing  of  the 
spring  of  eighteen  hundred  and  eight,  and  this  will  perhaps  serve  to 
convey  as  adequate  an  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  merino  sheep  as 
any  thing  that  can  be  said. 

58 


218  rAR:\IER'S  ASSISTAIS'T. 

From  tweuty-cine  common  sheep  he  had  upwards  of  one  hundred 
and  fourteen  pounds,  which  he  sold  at  thirty-seven  and  an  half  cent? 
per  pound.  This,  allowing  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  for  the  expense 
of  keeping  each  sheep  for  a  year,  fell  short  three  cents  on  each  fleece 
of  paying  for  their  keeping,  tightj-three  half-blooded  ewes  gave 
ujHvards  of  three  hundred  and  ninety-three  pounds;  and  forty-seven 
half-blooded  wethers  gave  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  thirty-six 
pounds.  This  wool  sold  for  seventy-five  cents  per  pound.  Clear 
profits  on  the  fleece  of  each  ewe  two  dollars  and  three  cents;  on  the 
fleece  of  each  wether  two  dollars  and  fifty-five  cents.  Thirty  three- 
fourth-blooded  ewes  gave  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  pounds, 
and  three  wethers  of  the  same  blood  gave  upwards  of  sixteen  pounds. 
This  wool  sold  for  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  per  pound. 
€Jear  profits  on  the  fleece  of  each  ewe  four  dollars  and  seventy-five 
cents;  on  the  fleece  of  each  wether  two  dollars  and  twenty-five 
cents.  Seven  full-bred  ewes  gave  upwards  of  tbirty-six  pounds,  and 
one  ram,  fourteen  months  old,  gave  upwards  of  nine  pounds.  This 
ivool  sold  for  two  dollars  per  pound.  Clear  profits  on  the  fleece  of 
each  ewe  eight  dollars  and  seventy-five  cents ;  on  the  ram  seventeen 
dollars  and  twenty-five  cenrts.  This  wool  was  all  sold  at  the  above 
prices  without  being  washed. 

By  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  (hat  if  (he  farmer  expects  to  derive 
large  profits  from  these  sheep,  he  ought  not  to  rest  until  he  has  go! 
into  the  full  bloods  of  this  breed,  or  into  the  fifteen-sixteenths,  which 
will  answer  about  as  well.  The  profit  of  the  lambs,  it  wiM  be  seett, 
is  not  taken  into  consideration  in  this  statement. 

If  these  sheep  are  thus  profitable  for  their  wool,  it  is  also  well  as- 
certained that  they  are  at  least  as  profitable  as  any  others  for  fat- 
ting. 

Mr.  Young  took  a  merino,  vreight  eighty-four  pounds — a  half  South  - 
down,  quarter  Bakewell,  and  quarter  Norfolk,  weight  one  hundred 
and  forty-one  pounds — and  a  Southdown,  weight  one  hnndred  and 
thirty-six  pounds;  these  were  fed  abroad  together  a  certain  length  of 
time,  and  then  weighed.  The  first  weighed  one  hundred  pounds ; 
the  second,  one  hundred  and  forty-eight ;  and  the  last,  one  hundred 
and  forty-four  j)ounds.  Thus  the  merino  gained  more  than  double 
the  quantity  of  flesh  which  the  other  two  gained. 

He  also  made  another  experiment,  which  served  to  shew  that  a 
merino  only  eats  in  proportion  to  its  size.  By  this  he  found  that 
three  merioos  may  be  maintained  four  per  cent  cheaper  than  two  of 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  219 

the  Southdowns.  The  weight  of  the  merino  upon  which  this  trial 
was  made,  was  ninety-one  pounds ;  that  of  the  Southdown,  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-two  pounds. 

3Ir.  Livingston  says  the  size  of  the  ewes,  more  than  that  of  the 
ram,  governs  the  size  of  their  lambs ;  that  the  ewes  of  a  small  race 
cannot  bear  large  lambs,  though  the  ram  be  ever  so  large.  For  this 
reason  the  lambs  which  are  raised  from  a  merino  ram  on  our  common 
ewes,  will  be  larger  than  those  raised  from  one  of  our  common  rams 
on  merino  ewes.  This  is  the  reason  why  rams  of  the  large  English 
breeds,  when  brought  here,  do  not  produce  a  race  any  way  corres- 
ponding to  their  own  size.  Mr.  Livingston  therefore  recommends 
engrafting  a  merino  stock  upon  our  common  ewes,  to  increase  the 
size  of  the  breed ;  though  if  they  only  eat  in  proportion  to  their  size 
this  is  not  so  material.  In  the  selection  of  the  ewes  take  those  that 
are  at  least  three  years  old,  as  large  as  can  be  obtained  of  the  sort, 
with  the  belly  large  and  well  covered  with  wool,  chine  and  loin 
broad,  breast  deep,  buttocks  full,  the  eyes  lively,  the  bag  large,  and 
the  teats  long.  In  addition  to  these  qualifications,  they  must  have 
fine  short  thick  wool,  their  bellies  Avell  covered,  and  with  the  least 
hair  on.  the  hinder  parts.  In  the  choice  of  the  ram,  which  we  will 
suppose  to  be  three-fourth-blooded,  and  which  can  be  purchased  for 
twenty-five  dollars,  select  one  that  is  of  good  size,  broad  in  the  chine 
and  loins,  deep  in  the  carcase,  the  back  straight,  the  ribs  well  set  out 
so  as  to  give  room  for  a  large  belly  well  covered  with  wool,  the  fore- 
head broad,  the  eyes  lively,  (a  heavy  eye  being  a  mark  of  a  diseased 
sheep,)  testicles  large  and  covered  with  wool ;  let  him  also  b€  strong, 
close-knit  and  active,  of  which  you  may  judge  by  taking  hold  of  his 
hind  legs;  and  lastly,  let  his  wool  be  of  good  quality,  and  as  clear  of 
hair  on  the  hinder  parts  as  possible. 

The  product  of  such  a  ram  with  common  ewes,  would  be  lambs 
possessing  nine  twenty-fourth  parts  of  merino  blood ;  and  twice  re- 
peating the  process  on  the  females  of  the  successive  products,  would 
give  three-fourth- biooded  lambs.  Two  further  repetitions  from  a  full- 
blooded  ram,  would  give  lambs  possessing  fifteen-sixteenths  of  merino 
blood,  which  is  probably  sufficient.  The  ram,  however,  ought  to  be 
changed  at  each  time ;  as  it  is  believed  that  the  rearing  of  succeed- 
ing stocks  between  which  there  is  the  closest  consanguinity  musl 
eventually  tend  to  degenerate  the  breed.  ^ 
See  article  Cattie. 


220  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

In  Spain,  where  by  the  extent  of  the  pastures  the  number  of  the 
merinos  are  limited,  it  is  usual  to  kill  ofif  some  of  the  most  indifferent 
lambs,  and  thus  two  ewes  can  be  given  to  suckle  one  of  those  surviv- 
ing. This  is  usually  effected  by  putting  the  skin  of  the  dead  lamb 
over  a  living  one,  which  commonly  intUices  the  dam  of  the  dead  one 
to  recognize  the  living  as  her  own.  Where  this  fails,  the  ewe  is  held 
for  the  lamb  to  suck  her;  and  she  is  confined  with  it  a  day  or  two, 
by  which  time  she  generally  adopts  it.  This  custom  is  only  in  part 
advisable  here;  that  is,  whenever  a  lamb  dies,  to  accustom  its  dam, 
in  this  manner,  to  give  its  milk  to  another  lamb. 

It  has  been  feared  by  some  that  these  sheep,  when  no  longer  mi- 
gratory, and  changed  from  their  accustomed  climate,  will  degenerate, 
and  their  wool  grow  coarser,  but  experience  does  by  no  means  war- 
rant these  apprehensions.  They  have  been  kept  stationary  for  more 
than  eighty  years  past  in  Sweden,  and  nearly  as  long  in  France,  and 
yet  have  suffered  no  deterioration.  Mr.  Livingston  thinks  the  wool 
of  his  merino  sheep  which  he  has  raised  here  finer  than  those  which 
were  imported.  It  ie  a  general  rule  with  animals  which  shed  their 
hair,  that  the  farther  north,  the  warmer,  and  of  course  the  finer,  is 
their  coats;  but  as  these  sheep  never  shed  their  wool,  the  rule  does 
not  necessarily  include  them.  Their  wool  is  in  this  respect  similar 
to  human  hair ;  but  this  is  always  found  the  finest  in  the  colder  cli- 
mates. 

Apprehensions  have  also  been  entertained  that  these  sheep,  having 
in  Spain  been  long  accustomed  to  situations  where  winter  is  scarcely 
felt,  would  be  found  unable  to  stand  the  severity  of  our  winters;  but 
the  fact  just  mentioned  of  their  being  successfully  reared  even  in  the 
cold  climate  of  Sweden  sufficiently  obviates  this  objection.  Mr.  Liv- 
ingston says,  that  "  like  all  other  sheep  they  will  be  found  the  belter 
for  good  keeping,  yet  they  will  not  suffer  more  than  others  from  neg- 
lect; and  that  they  will,  in  every  mixed  flock,  be  found  amongst  the 
most  thrifty  in  the  severest  weather." 

Some,  again,  may  suppose  that  tlie  country  will  soon  be  stocked 
with  merinos,  and  that  the  price  of  their  wool  will  then  fall  to  that  of 
common  wool;  but  such  should  remember  that  more  than  half  the 
civilized  world  is  destitute  of  these  sheep,  and  that  while  they  conti- 
nue to  remain  so,  the  sheep,  the  wool,  or  the  fabricks  made  from  it, 
will  be  eagerly  sought  after.  In  the  course  of  a  century.  North  and 
South- America  will  probably  contain  two  hundred  millions  of  people, 
and  the  wants  of  these  alone  will  at  that  time  require  three  hundred 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  221 

millions  of  merinos.     There  is  certainly  no  danger  of  the  price  of 
merino  wool  falling  much  for  twenty  years  to  come. 

The  ewes  of  this  breed  seldom  produce  twins;  though,  if  necessa- 
ry, they  may  be  made,  like  other  sheep,  to  breed  twice  a  year.  Ewes 
of  the  English  Teeswater  breed  have  been  known  to  bring  five  iambs 
in  a  year.  The  ram,  when  put  to  the  ewes,  should  be  better  kept 
than  usual ;  and  for  this  purpose  should  be  fed  two  or  three  times  a 
day  with  a  slice  or  two  of  bread,  made  of  Indian  meal,  which  may  be 
given  to  him  by  hand.  When  the  ewes  are  not  suckling  lambs,  they 
may  at  any  time  be  brought  to  take  the  ram,  by  feeding  some  Indian 
corn  to  them.  The  first  lamb  of  a  young  ewe  will  never  be  so  strong 
as  those  succeeding,  because  she  will  not  have  the  same  strength,  nor 
the  same  quantity  of  milk  which  she  will  have  afterwards. 

There  are  different  breeds  of  merinos  in  Spain,  says  Mr.  Living- 
ston, and  the  wool  of  some  is  inferior  to  that  of  others ;  some  selling 
there  for  only  sixty  crnts  a  pound,  while  others  sell  for  a  dollar. 
The  best  flocks  are  those  of  the  Escurial,  of  Gaudaloiipe,  of  Paular, 
of  the  Duke  D'^Infantado,  of  Monturio,  and  of  the  Nigrctii.  The  first 
exceeds  for  fineness  of  wool ;  the  second  for  fineness  of  form,  and 
fineness  and  abundance  of  fleece ;  the  third,  with  similar  fleeces,  are 
larger  bodied.  "  The  lambs  of  this  stock  and  of  that  of  the  Duke 
D'Infantado,  are  commonly  dropped  with  a  thick  covering,  which 
changes  into  very  fine  wool."     The  Nigretti  are  the  largest  breed. 

After  merino  wool  has  been  sorted  as  before  directed,  and  is  to  be 
manufactured  in  the  family,  let  it  be  covered  with  soft  water,  mixed 
one  third  with  urine,  and  let  it  stand  fifteen  hours,  or  longer  if  the 
Aveather  be  cold.  A  cauldron  is  then  to  be  put  on  the  fire,  with  some 
soft  water,  and  let  two  thirds  of  that  which  covers  the  fleeces  be 
added  to  it.  When  so  hot  as  that  the  hand  cannot  bear  it,  take  out 
the  wool,  put  it  in  a  basket,  press  out  the  liquor,  put  the  basket  in  the 
cauldron,  and  there  wash  the  wool  by  pressing,  without  any  wringing 
of  it,  and  then  cleanse  it  in  running  water.  If  the  water  in  the  caul- 
dron becomes  too  dirty,  take  more  water  from  that  in  which  it  was 
first  soaked.  Dry  the  wool  in  the  shade,  not  in  the  sun  ;  let  it  then 
be  beat  with  a  rod,  which  takes  out  all  seeds,  &c.  and  softens  it ;  then 
pick  it,  by  opening  it  lengthways  carefully,  and  card  it  with  cotton^ 
not  with  wool,  cards.  Carding-machines  are  advised  not  to  be  used 
for  this  wool,  unless  particularly  fitted  for  it. 

The  above  is  the  European  method  of  managing  this  wool  before 
carding,  &c.  but  Mr.  Livingston  thinks  that  if  the  wool  be  carefully 


322  far:mer's  assistant. 

picked  and  carded,  so  as  to  get  out  most  of  the  dirt,  and  wore  in  thU 
way.  that  it  will  answer  without  washing,  in  which  case  less  oil,  or 
grease,  will  be  necessarj". 

Common  wool  cannot  be  carded  too  much — merino  wool  may.  In 
spinnin?.  the  warp  must  be  twisted  the  opposite  way  from  that  of  the 
woof,  which  should  be  spun  more  loose,  or  slackly  twisted,  than  that 
of  the  warp.  For  spinning  the  woof,  the  wool  is  to  have  one  pound 
of  oil.  or  grease,  to  every  four  pounds;  but  for  the  warp,  one  pound 
of  oil  to  every  eight  pounds  of  wool  is  the  proper  allowance.  This  is 
for  very  fine  spinning ;  but  for  spinning  coarser  yara  less  wl  is  ne- 
cessary. Olive  oil  is  the  best  for  greasing  the  wool ;  neat's  foot  oil 
is  also  very  good ;  and  no  doubt  the  oil  which  is  produced  from  the 
FUD-flower  would  be  found  as  good  as  either.  See  article  Sin- 
Flower. 

The  farmer  will  find  a  great  addition  to  his  profits  from  his  merinft 
wool  by  converting  it  into  fine  cloth,  in  bis  own  family,  if  this  can 
conveniently  be  done. 

Sheep  of  all  kinds  are  subject  to  fewer  diseases  in  this  coantry 
than  in  most  others.  This  article  shall,  therefore,  be  concluded 
with  noticing  those  most  prevalent  here,  and  the  remedies  for  each, 
together  with  some  slight  notice  of  seme  which  prevail  abroad. 

Those  of  grown  sheep  are  as  follows  : — The  scab.  This  appears 
first  by  the  sheep  rubbias  the  part  affected,  and  pulling  out  the  wool 
in  that  part  with  their  tefth,  or  by  loose  locks  of  wool  rising  on  their 
backs  and  shoulders.  The  sheep  infected  is  first  to  be  taken  from 
the  flock  and  put  by  itself,  and  then  the  part  affected  is  to  have  the 
wool  taken  off  as  far  as  the  skin  feels  hard  to  the  finger,  and  washed 
with  soap-suds  and  rubbed  hard  with  a  shoe-brush,  so  as  to  cleanse 
and  break  the  scab.  Then  anoint  it  with  a  decoction  of  tobacco  wa- 
ter, mixed  with  a  third  of  lye  of  wood  ashes,  as  much  grease  as  this 
lye  will  dissolve,  a  small  quantity  of  tar,  and  about  an  eighth  of  the 
whole  mass  of  the  spirits  of  turpentine.  This  ointment  is  to  be  rub- 
bed on  the  part  affected,  and  for  some  little  distance  round  it,  at  three 
different  times,  with  an  interval  of  three  days  between  each  wash- 
ing. VTith  timely  precautions  this  will  always  be  found  sufficient. 
In  very  inveterate  cases.  Sir  Joseph  Banks  say*  mercurial  ointment 
must  be  resorted  to,  with  great  care,  however,  keeping  the  sheep  dry; 
the  wool  to  be  opened,  and  a  streak  to  be  made  down  the  back,  and 
from  thence  down  the  rib?  and  thighs.  Fine  wooled  sheep,  and  rams 
which  have  been  much  exhausted  by  covering,  are  most  subject  ta 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  223 

this  disorder,  and  in  fine  wooied  flocks  it  is  most  difficult  to  cure. 
It  is  said  that  it  may  be  communicated  even  by  a  sheep  lying  on  the 
same  ground  on  which  a  scabby  one  had  shortly  before  lain,  or  by 
rubbing  against  the  same  post. 

Pelt  rot.  In  this  disease  the  wool  falls  off,  hut  the  skin  does  not 
become  sore,  but  is  merely  covered  with  a  white  crust.  Cure — Full 
feeding,  warm  keeping,  and  anointing  the  hard  part  of  the  skin  with 
tar,  oil  and  butter,  mixed  together. 

Tick.  As  these  occasion  a  constant  scratching  they  prove  injuri- 
ous to  the  wool,  and  they  sometimes  occasion  the  death  of  lean  sheep. 
Cwre^— Blow  tobacco  smoke  into  every  part  of  the  fleece,  by  means 
of  a  bellows.  The  smoke  is  taken  into  the  bellows,  the  wool  is  open- 
.ed,  the  smoke  is  blown  in,  and  the  wool  is  then  closed — this  is  re- 
peated over  every  part  of  the  body  at  proper  distances.  It  is  quickly 
performed. 

Dogs.  These  often  prove  more  injurious  to  sheep  than  all  their 
other  maladies  put  together.  Cure — A  fine,  say  of  a  hundred  dollarsj 
upon  every  man  that  keeps  a  female  of  these  animals  above  eight 
inches  high ;  or  a  yearly  tax,  say  of  twenty  dollars,  laid  upon  the 
owners.  Extirpate  the  females  of  this  race,  and  the  whole  breed 
would  soon  disappear.  The  legislature  may  easily  enforce  a  law  of 
this  kind  without  danger  of  its  being  unpopular,  which  it  is  said  would 
be  the  fate  of  a  law  taxing  the  whole  race  of  dogs. 

Staggers.  A  disease  of  the  brain  which  renders  them  unable  to 
stand :  Incurable  by  any  means  known  which  would  warrant  the 
expense.     See,  however,  what  Gibson  says,  article  Staggers. 

Colds.  The  principal  indication  of  this  is  the  discharge  of  mucus 
from  the  nose.  The  cure  has  already  been  noticed.  Whenever  this, 
however,  becomes  habitual  with  old  sheep  they  should  be  killed  off. 

Purging.  If  any  are  severely  afflicted  in  the  spring  with  this, 
which  sometimes  happens  after  being  turned  out  to  grass,  house  them, 
give  them  a  dose  of  castor  oil,  feed  them  with  dry  food,  and  give 
them  some  crusts  of  wheat  bread.  A  slight  purging  will  not  hurt 
them. 

Hove.  Sheep,  like  neat  cattle,  when  put  into  clover  pastures, 
sometimes  have  their  stomachs  distended  by  wind,  so  that  they  will 
die  if  not  relieved.  The  swelling  rises  highest  on  the  left  side,  and 
lu  this  place  let  the  knife  be  inserted,  or  other  means  used,  in  the 
manner  directed  for  neat  cattle. 
See  article  Neat  Cattlr. 


224  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

The  disease?  of  lambs  are — 

Pinning.  When  the  excrement  of  the  Iamb  becomes  so  glutinous 
as  to  fasten  the  tail  to  the  vent,  it  must  be  washed  clean,  and  have 
the  buttocks  and  tail  rubbed  with  dry  clay,  which  will  prevent  any 
further  adhesion- 

Purpns[.  Put  the  lamb  with  its  dam  into  a  dry  place,  and  give 
her  some  oats,  old  Indian  corn,  or  crusts  of  wheat  bread.  If  the  dam 
has  not  milk  enough,  give  the  lamb  cow's  milk,  boiled,  or  let  it  suck  a 

COM'. 

Sometimes  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  bleed  sheep  to  allay  some 
inflammatory  disorder.  "  Daubenton  recommends  bleeding  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  cheek,  at  the  spot  where  the  root  of  the  fourth  tooth 
is  placed,  which  is  the  thickest  part  of  the  cheek,  and  is  marked  on 
the  external  surface  of  the  bone  of  the  upper  jaw  by  a  tubercle  suffi- 
ciently prominent  to  be  very  sensible  to  the  finger  when  the  skin  of 
the  cheek  is  touched.  This  tubercle  is  a  certain  index  to  the  angu- 
lar vein  which  is  placed  below."  The  method  of  bleeding,  after  find- 
ing the  vein,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  describe. 

Philip  De  Castro,  a  Spanish  shepherd,  has  written  a  short  treatise 
on  the  diseases  of  sheep  in  Spain,  and  of  their  management  there, 
and  he  recommends  that  bleeding  should  be  performed  in  a  vein  in 
the  fore  part  of  the  dug.  The  essay  of  this  shepherd  is  believed  to 
be  worthy  of  some  further  notice. 

He  says  the  merino  sheep  of  Spain  are  subject  to  the  following  dis- 
eases : — The  scab  ;  cured  by  juniper  oil  when  the  weather  is  wet,  or 
by  a  decoction  of  tobacco  in  i\ry  weather:  Basquilla ;  occasioned 
by  too  much  blood ;  cured  by  bleeding  in  the  dug,  as  before  mention- 
ed :  MocUrez  ;  (lethargy.)  occasioned  by  jiustules  formed  on  the 
brain ;  the  sheep  keep  turning,  while  feeding,  to  the  side  where  the 
pustules  are  formed ;  few  recover,  and  the  disease  is  infectious.  Some 
get  well  in  part  by  pricking  the  part  affected  with  an  awl ;  but  those 
attacked  with  this  disorder  should  be  killed  off:  Small-pox  ;  being 
blisters,  which  first  appear  on  the  flanks,  and  spread  over  the  body  ; 
it  is  produced  by  drinking  stagnant  waters.  The  diseased  sheep  are 
to  be  kept  apart  from  the  rest,  as  the  disease  is  infectious,  and  wheu 
the  blisters  break  anoint  them  with  sweet  oil :  Lastly,  Icaneness ;  this 
appears  to  be  the  same  as  is  described  by  Mr.  Livingston. 

He  observes  that  "  the  legs  of  sheep  are  furnished  with  a  duct 
which  terminates  in  the  fissure  of  the  hoof;  from  which,  when  the 
animal  is  in  health,  there  is  secreted  a  ^^hite  fluid,  but  when  sickly 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  225 

these  ducts  are  stopped  by  the  hardness  of  the  fluid."  He  adds,  that 
he  had  "  in  some  instances  found  the  sheep  relieved  by  pressing  out 
the  hardened  matter  with  the  finger  from  the  orifice  of  the  duct  in 
each  foot ;  perhaps  it  may  in  some  cases  be  proper  to  place  their  feet 
in  warm  mater,  or  to  use  a  prohc,  or  hard  brush,  for  cleansing  this  pas- 
sage." He  concludes  by  observing,  that  probably  the  ill  health  oif 
sheep,  in  wet  or  muddy  pastures,  may  in  some  measure  be  ascribed  to 
the  necessity  of  keeping  these  ducts  free  and  open. 

The  compiler  of  "  The  Complete  Grazier,"  however,  mentions  an- 
other kind  of  lameness  in  sheep  which  is  called  the  foot-halt.  It  is 
caused  by  an  insect  resembling  a  worm,  two  or  three  inches  long, 
which  is  found  to  have  entered  between  the  close  of  the  claw^s  of  the 
sheep,  and  worked  its  passage  upward  between  the  external  mem- 
branes and  the  bone.  To  extract  the  worm  move  the  claws  back- 
wards and  forwards  in  contrary  directions,  and  it  will  ivork  its  w^ay 
out.  In  Great-Britain  this  disorder  is  chiefly  confined  to  wet  pas- 
tures. 

De  Castro  also  mentions  diseases  to  which  the  merino  lambs  are 
subject,  in  Spain,  when  brought  forth  in  wet  weather;  such  as  the 
hhannillo,  (gangrene,)  which  has  no  cure  :  The  amarilla,  (jaundice,) 
which  is  infectious,  the^  flesh  and  bones  of  the  lamb  turning  of  the  co- 
lour of  yellow  wax ;  for  this  a  small  quantity  of  the  flax  leaved  daphne 
guidium  is  good :  The  coviro,  a  lameness  of  the  feet,  which  appears 
to  be  the  stoppage  of  the  excretory  duct  before  mentioned.  General- 
ly, he  says  the  lambs  are  subject  to  the  diseases  of  the  ewes,  and  that 
the  same  remedies  are  requisite. 

Sheep  in  Great-Britain  are  subject  to  the  rot ;  but  it  is  believed 
that  this  disease  has  never  been  known  in  this  country.  Another 
disease,  however,  which  the  British  writers  mention,  our  sheep  are 
sometimes  liable  to ;  —this  is,  being  maggotty,  occasioned  by  being 
fly-blown,  and  if  not  timely  remedied  the  maggots  will  eat  into  the 
entrails  in  twenty-four  hours;  cured  by  corrosive  sublimate  and  tur- 
pentine rubbed  into  the  sore.  Sheep  in  Great-Britain  are  also  sub- 
ject to  diseases  called  the  red-water  and  white-water,  from  the  colour 
of  their  urine ;  no  cure  known — supposed  to  be  occasioned  by  eating 
poisonous  weeds. 

Frequently  changing  flocks  of  sheep  from  one  farm  to  another, 
where  the  pastures  are  equally  good,  is  very  beneficial  to  them.  I 
know  a  flocu  which  for  several  years  past  have  been  pastured  on  dif- 

29 


226  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

ferent  fflrms,  by  being  let  out  to  different  farmers  on  shares,  which  are 
much  the  (inest  looking  sheep  to  be  found  any  where  in  the  neighbor* 
boo4l  whert-  they  belong. 

The  farmer  who  would  rejoice  to  see  our  country  so  far  indepen- 
dent as  to  become  stocked  uith  woollen  fabricks  of  our  own  making, 
roust  feel  himself  im|)elled  by  his  patriotism  to  endeavor  to  afford  hie 
share  of  supplies  of  wool,  which  are  so  needful  to  our  infant  manufac- 
tories; and  he  who  is  insensit)le  to  a  love  of  country,  may  still  find  a 
powerful  incentive  to  the  raising  of  sheep,  in  consulting  his  own  in- 
terest. The  raising  of  merino  sheep,  in  particular,  is  undoubtedly 
very  profitable;  and  the  nearer  the  farmer  brings  his  breed  to  that  of 
the  full  blood,  the  greater  will  be  his  profit.  Like  every  thing,  how- 
ever, which  innovates  U|K>n  ancient  usages,  the  merino  has  its  preju- 
dices to  encounter ;  and  the  savage  who  fir«4  introduced  the  use  of 
the  bow  and  arrow  to  his  countrymen,  no  doubt  had  the  same.  But 
let  the  sensible  and  spirited  farmer  persevere ;  and  in  the  end  his  me- 
rino flock  will  afford  him  a  rich  harvest,  the  pleasure  and  profit  of 
which  his  weaker  neighbor  must  lorego  as  a  tax  on  his  prejudices. 

SILK  WORiMS.  For  raising  these  worms,  (says  Mr.  De  La  Bi- 
garre,)  the  first  step  is  to  procure  the  eggs,  which  should  be  from  a 
climate  similar  to  that  where  they  are  to  be  hatched.  Gooil  egg» 
take,  successively,  the  colours  of  gridelin,  purple,  and  lastly,  an  ash- 
coloured  hue;  they  will  crack  under  your  nail,  while  the  bad  ones 
will  make  no  noise  when  pressed  in  the  same  manner.  Leave  them 
on  the  cloth  where  they  were  laid  by  the  female,  and  keep  them  in  a 
dry  place  where  they  will  not  freeze  in  winter,  nor  be  too  much  heat- 
ed in  spring.  When  about  to  be  hatched  take  them  off  the  cloth ; 
and  when  the  first  buds  of  the  mulberry  come  out,  proceed  to  hatch- 
ing them.  Divide  them  into  ounces,  and  put  each  ounce  into  little 
fiat  iKises,  lined  and  made  soft  in  the  inside,  and  let  them  be  kept  in 
a  constant  degree  of  warmth  equal  to  ninety-six  of  Farenheit's  ther- 
mometer- Some  put  them  into  little  hag?,  and  carry  them  under 
their  clothes  in  the  day  time,  and  under  their  pillow  while  sleeping; 
but  perhaps  the  better  way  is  to  keep  them  in  a  small  apartment  con- 
stantly warmed  by  a  stove  or  otherwise.  The  bags  must  be  opened 
every  day  to  give  them  fresh  air,  while  hatching.  When  the  eggs 
turn  a  whitish  colour  it  is  a  sign  the  worms  will  soon  come  out;  and 
then,  if  in  bags,  they  must  be  stirred  up  five  or  sis  times  a  day,  t» 
give  the  young  embryos  sufficient  air;  but  if  they  be  in  boxes,  they 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  227 

CTin  be  thiulj'  spread  over  the  bottom,  and  then  opening  the  boxes 
once  or  twice  a  day  will  answer.  The  time  usualij'^  required  lor 
hatching  is  about  eight  or  nine  days,  sometimes  longer.  If  too  much 
heat  be  applied  in  hatching,  many  of  the  worms  will  perish  in  raising. 
An  ounce  contains  about  forty-two  thousand  eges,  but  among  these 
may  be  many  bad  ones,  which,  if  they  do  not  hatch  in  two  days  after 
the  first  hatchings,  may  be  thrown  away. 

The  eggs  of  the  yellow  cocoons  are  to  be  preferred,  as  they  give 
the  most  and  best  silk. 

If  you  hatch  in  hags,  as  soon  as  you  find  some  of  the  worms  coming 
out,  put  them  all  iuto  such  boxes  as  before  described.  When  a  suffi- 
cient number  have  come  out,  take  a  piece  of  parchment  fitted  to  the 
inside,  cut  it  full  of  holes  like  a  sieve,  lay  it  over  them,  and  on  it 
spread  some  tender  young  mulberry  leaves,  and  the  worms  will  then 
come  up  through  the  holes  to  feed  on  them.  When  a  sufficient  num- 
ber have  thus  come  up,  take  up  the  parchment,  by  strings  fixed  to  it 
for  the  purpose,  and  place  the  leaves  and  worms  in  a  larger  box,  or 
shelf,  lined  with  white  paper.  Fill  only  ahout  a  third  of  the  bottom 
of  this  box,  or  enclosed  shelf,  with  leaves ;  because  as  the  worms 
grow  larger  they  require  more  room.  Here  you  feed  the  worms  til! 
after  their  first  moulting.  In  the  meantime  the  parchment  is  to  be 
laid  on  with  leaves,  as  before,  to  take  out  other  supplies  of  worms; 
and  if  these  he  taken  out  on  another  day  they  are  to  be  put  in  another 
box  or  shelf;  as  those  hatched  on  different  days  are  to  \ic  ke[»t  in 
different  boxes.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three  days  all  the  good  eggs 
will  be  hatched,  and  the  rest  may  be  thrown  a^vay.  After  they  are 
hatched  they  must  be  kept  in  about  the  same  temperature  of  heat  for 
ten  or  twelve  days.  They  are  to  be  fed  twice  or  three  times  a  day 
■with  tender  leaves  till  the  time  of  the  first  moulting;  and  let  those 
leaves  previously  fed,  be  eaten  before  fresh  ones  are  given. 

In  ahout  six  or  seven  days  they  generally  arrive  to  their  first 
moulting,  if  properly  kept  in  regard  to  warmth,  cleanliness.  Sec.  If 
they  should  be  as  long  as  a  fortnight  before  moulting  they  will  not  do 
well. 

In  their  moultings  they  lie  in  a  torpid  state,  in  which  they  leave 
their  old  coats  and  acquire  new  ones.  They  moult  four  times  before 
they  begin  to  spin.  While  in  this  state  they  should  be  kept  rather 
■warmer  than  usual,  and  should  not  be  disturbed.  Previous  to  each  of 
these  times  they  look  dull  and  weak,  they  lose  their  appetite,  the 
skin  becomes  bright,  and  they  seek  for  a  place  to  lie  by  themselves. 


228  FARMER'S  ASSISTANl. 

They  lie  motionless  for  about  two  days.  They  will  not  all  moult  on 
the  same  days,  but  in  three  or  four  days  the  business  will  be  over, 
which  may  be  discovered  by  the  colour  of  the  skin,  and  by  their  ac- 
tivity ;  and  then  it  is  time  to  change  their  litter  and  clean  the  shelf. 
In  order  to  get  them  out,  spread  over  them  some  fresh  leaves,  upon 
which  they  will  crawl,  so  as  to  enable  you  to  lift  them  up.  Put  one 
half  of  these  into  one  shelf  of  the  same  size,  and  the  other  half  into 
another;  and  this  enlargement  of  their  room  must  be  repeated  after 
every  moulting,  as  they  are  constantly  growing  larger. 

After  the  first  moulting,  some  of  the  worms  will  be  reddish,  some 
ash  coloured,  and  some  of  a  blackish  hue.  The  reddish  ones  may 
be  thrown  away,  as  they  will  not  come  to  any  thing.  More  worms 
perish  in  the  third  moulting  than  in  any  other. 

The  mulberry  leaves  must  be  picked  when  perfectly  dry ;  and  as 
this  cannot  be  done  every  day,  a  store  of  them  is  to  be  kej)t  on  hand, 
laid  in  a  cool  dry  room,  and  stirred  up  now  and  then  to  prevent  their 
heating  and  wilting.  The  number  of  meals,  after  the  first  moulting, 
is  to  be  governed  by  the  appetite  of  the  worms;  and  if  this  be  not 
good  it  is  most  probable  that  they  want  more  heat.  Don't  deal  out 
the  leaves  faster  than  they  are  eaten. 

In  seven,  eight,  or  nine  days,  they  will  moult  a  second  time ;  and 
80  on  for  the  two  follomng  times.  The  larger  they  grow  the  less 
heat  they  want.  After  the  third  moulting,  open  the  windows  each 
day  to  give  them  fresh  air.  The  shelves  are  to  be  cleaned  after  each 
moulting;  and  where  the  intervals  between  the  moultings  are  unu- 
aually  long,  let  them  be  cleaned  twice.  When  too  much  crowded, 
take  some  out  on  leaves,  as  before  directed,  and  place  them  else- 
where. They  cannot  bear  to  be  touched  by  hand  unless  very 
gently. 

The  white  mulberry  leaves  are  best  for  feeding  the  worms ;  and 
the  tender  young  leaves  of  young  trees  are  to  be  preferred  at  first, 
but  in  their  more  advanced  stages  they  want  older  leaves ;  and  these 
may  be  of  older,  or  grafted,  trees.  Other  kinds  of  mulberry,  how- 
ever, will  answer.  If  the  leaves  cannot  be  had  dry,  let  them  be 
dried  before  they  are  used,  as  wet  leaves  are  hurtful. 

When  they  are  past  the  last  moulting  they  eat  greedilj',  and  want 
more  food  than  before.  At  the  end  of  seven  or  eight  days  they  be- 
gin their  cocoons.  During  all  this  time  let  them  daily  have  fresh  air, 
and  let  their  shelves  be  cleaned. 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  229 

When  you  find  them  creeping  about  without  eating,  as  if  in  search 
of  something,  with  their  bodies  of  a  bright  straw  colour,  it  is  then 
time  to  prepare  bushes,  fixed  on  tables,  for  them  to  climb  on  and  fix 
their  cocoons.  The  bushes  are  to  be  dry  and  clear  of  leaves,  and  set 
in  rows  with  their  tops  leaning  together.  Under  these  lay  some  mul- 
berry leaves,  for  the  further  feeding  of  those  which  may  not  be  quite 
ready  for  spinning,  and  don't  let  the  worms  be  crowded  too  much  on 
the  tables.  To  put  them  on  the  tables,  you  apply  your  finger,  to 
which  they  readily  attach,  then  put  them  on  a  smooth  varnished 
plate,  to  which  they  cannot  adhere,  and  empty  them  carefully  on  the 
table.  Those  that  incline  to  feed  longer  will  do  so,  and  those  that  do 
not  will  ascend  the  boughs.  The  spinning  is  completed  in  three  or 
four  days ;  but  as  they  do  not  all  commence  at  the  same  time,  pick 
off  the  cocoons  in  about  twelve  days  after  they  have  begun  to  spin. 

The  chrysalis  contained  in  each  cocoon  is  killed  by  placing  them, 
in  baskets  lined  with  brown  paper,  in  an  oven  heated  nearly  warm 
enough  to  bake  bread ;  if  this  be  not  done  the  chrysalis  eats  its  way 
out  of  the  cocoon,  and  thus  spoils  the  contexture  of  the  silk.  They 
are  to  be  kept  in  the  oven  till  the  ratling  noise,  which  they  occasion 
while  dying,  has  abated.  Then  take  them  out,  and  wrap  them  close 
in  a  blanket  to  suffocate  those  which  may  not  yet  be  dead.  Previous 
to  the  operation  of  baking,  the  outer  coat,  called  tow,  is  to  be  taken 
off;  and  the  same  is  to  be  observed  with  those  which  are  kept  for 
seed. 

In  reserving  these,  take  equal  numbers  of  males  and  females  of  the 
yellow  kind.  The  male  cocoon  is  sharp  pointed ;  the  female  round 
at  each  end.  After  being  divested  of  their  tow,  string  (hem  together, 
male  and  female  alternately,  upon  a  coarse  thread,  letting  the  needle 
go  merely  through  the  surface  of  each,  for  fear  of  hurting  the  chrysalis 
within ;  hang  these  in  a  dry  place  till  the  butterfly  comes  out.  One 
pound  of  cocoons  will  give  an  ounce  of  eggs.  When  the  butterfly 
has  come  out,  the  males  are  known  by  being  sharp  pointed,  the  fe- 
males being  larger  and  full  of  eggs.  Place  them  all  on  a  piece  of 
black  cloth,  and  put  the  males  and  females  together  in  pairs;  let  them 
remain  so  three  or  four  hours;  and  then  throw  the  males  away,  leav- 
ing the  females  to  deposit  their  eggs.  These  are  to  be  well  dried  on 
the  cloth  on  which  they  are  laid,  and  put  in  a  fresh  room  during  sum- 
mer, and  out  of  the  way  of  frosts  during  winter. 

Bad  management  and  other  causes  occasion  some  disorders  among 
the  worms.     Some  become  fat,  and  do  not  moult,  but  continue  eat- 


>230  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

hig,  having  a  whiter  and  more  oiljr  appearance  than  the  rest.  After 
the  third  or  fourth  moulting  some  become  lean,  refuse  to  eat,  turn 
soft,  and  become  smaller  than  formerly.  The  yellow  worms  never 
appear  but  a  little  before  spinning,  and  instead  of  becoming  mature, 
swell  up  with  nasty  yellow  spots  on  their  heads,  and  at  last  over  their 
bodies.     All  these,  when  discovered,  are  to  be  thrown  away. 

The  other  method  recommended  by  the  same  writer,  is  to  raise 
these  worms  on  white  mulberry  hedges.  A  hedge  of  this  kind  of 
three  years  old,  he  says,  begins  to  be  fit  for  the  worms,  but  those 
which  are  four  or  five  years  old  will  be  better,  as  they  afford  the 
Tvorm  more  places  of  retreat  in  storm?.  Two  or  three  days  after  the 
first  moulting,  and  in  a  fine  warm  day,  pnt  the  young  worms  on  the 
hedge,  by  means  of  leaves  as  before  mentioned.  The  feathered  end 
of  a  goose-quill  is  very  good  to  raise  them,  or  move  them  in  different 
places.  Put  them  on  the  hedge  at  the  rate  of  about  one  hundred  to 
every  two  rods,  but  thicker  where  the  hedge  is  older.  Worms  thus 
raised  in  the  open  air,  says  the  same  writer,  are  free  from  all  disor- 
ders ;  their  only  fate  depends  on  the  season ;  and  our  summers  are 
preferable  to  those  in  Europe  for  raising  them.  la  this  way,  care 
must^  however,  be  taken  to  keep  certain  birds  from  them. 

The  same  writer  also  rem?»rks,  in  a  note  to  his  observations  on  the 
diseases  of  this  worm,  that  he  was  afterwards  informed  of  an  experi- 
Kjent  made  in  this  state,  by  which  it  appears  that  this  climate  is  more 
fevorable  for  raising  them  under  cover  than  that  of  Spain  or  France. 
Out  of  six  thousand  worms  raised  by  Mrs.  Montgomery,  hut  very  few 
died;  and  her  success  in  raising  them  was  equal  in  preceding  yeart- 
In  Europe,  he  says,  four  fifths  of  them  perish  before  spinning. 

SLIPS.  These  are  twigs  torn  from  a  tree  or  shrub,  to  propagate 
by  planting  in  a  moist  soil.  Let  two  thirds  of  their  length  be  buried, 
and  they  will  strike  root  more  readily  than  cuttings.  This,  says  Mr. 
Deane.  should  he  done  as  soon  as  the  erround  is  thawed  in  the  spring. 
They  should  be  set.  if  possible,  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  from  the 
tree;  otherwise  let  their  ends  be  enclosed  in  wet  clay  until  the  time 
of  setting. 

They  should  he  set  in  fine  rich  pulverized  earth,  and  should  be  fre- 
quently watered,  particularly  when  the  ground  is  dry. 

Some  twiffs  will  in  this  way  grow  very  readily ;  others,  again,  are 
more  difficult  to  stow.  Mr.  Deaoe  advise?  to  place  those  most  diffi- 
cult to  grow,  in  pots,  where  they  can  be  more  carefully  attended  te. 


PARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  23i 

It  is  said  that  some  trees  which  are  not  natural  to  be  cultivated  in  this  ■ 
manner,  will  not  grow  so  large  as  when  raised  Irora  the  seed. 

Where  fruit  trees  are  cultivated  in  this  way,  the  trees  thus  raised 
will  bear  the  'game  fruit  as  those  from  whence  the  slips  were  extract- 
ed. It  is  said  that  the  life  of  a  fruit  tree  raised  from  a  slip  or  cutting, 
will  end  nearly  at  the  same  time  of  that  from  w  hence  the  slip  or  cut- 
ting is  extracted ;  but  this  seems  very  doubtful,  and  in  most  instances 
unworthy  of  belief. 

SMU  r.  The  cause  of  smut  in  wheat  has  been  productive  of  muck 
investigation  and  speculation  ;  but  since  the  means  have  been  disco- 
vered of  preventing  it,  we  may  well  rest  satisfied  with  this. 

In  the  year  seventeen  hundred  and  eighty-seven  Mr.  Young  sowed 
fourteen  beds  with  the  same  wheat  seed,  as  black  with  smut,  he  says, 
as  he  ever  saw  any.  The  first  bed  was  sown  with  this  wheat  without 
washing,  and  this  had  three  hundred  and  seventy-seven  smutty  ears: 
That  washed  in  clean  water,  had  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  : 
That  iu  lime  water,  had  forty-three  :  That  in  lye  of  wood  ashes,  had 
thirty-one  :  That  in  arsenic,  had  twenty-eight.  Again — That  steep' 
ed  in  lime  water  four  hours,  had  twelve  :  That  in  lie  four  hours,  had 
twelve:  That  in  arsenic  four  hours,  had  one.  And  again — That 
which  wa?  steeped  in  lie,  as  before  mentioned,  twelve  hours,  had  none 
— and  that  which  was  steeped  in  the  same  kind  of  lie  twenty-four 
hours,  had  none  :  That  also  which  was  steeped  twenty-four  hours  ia 
lime  water,  had  none :  That  steeped  in  arsenic  twenty-four  hours, 
had  five. 

Thus  it  appears  as  a  matter  of  certainty  that  steeping  the  seed 
wheat  twenty-fours  in  lie  will  efTecinally  prevent  smut.  Let  the  lie 
be  made  pretty  strong,  and  if  the  wlieat  is  steeped  longer  than  this 
length  of  time  it  will  not  injure  it,  unless  it  be  kept  too  warm.  Lime 
water,  and  salt  hrine,  applied  in  the  same  manner,  will  no  doubt  an- 
swer the  same  purpose. 

If  steeping  in  arsenic  a  longer  time  should  prove  effectual,  this 
would  also  be  an  excellent  antitoile  to  birds;  or  to  prevent  them  from 
picking  up  the  seeds,  the  lye  water  and  arsenic  might  be  used  to- 
gether. 

It  has  been  observed  that  seed  wheat  which  has  been  well  ripened 
before  harvesting  is  much  less  liable  to  smut  than  that  which  has 
been  cut  early.  Let  the  wheat  for  seed  be  the  last  harvested,  and 
let  it  be  kept  by  itself,  perfectly  dry,  until  it  is  threshed  out.  Per- 
haps the  better  way  would  be,  to  thresh  it  out  in  the  field  when  in  a 


232  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

very  dry  state.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  is,  that  smut  is  believed 
to  be  somewhat  infectious;  and  that  therefore  if  wheat  entirely  free 
of  this  disorder  be  put  in  a  mow  with  smutty  wheat,  the  whole  mass 
will  become  more  or  less  infected  with  smat,  by  reason  of  the  sweat- 
ing or  heatins;  of  the  mow. 

Wheat  that  is  very  smutty  in  the  field  should  not  be  harvested 
ontil  the  crop  is  so  fully  ripe  and  dry  that  it  will  shell  out  considera- 
bly in  harvesting;  by  this  means  the  grjuns  of  smut  are  mostly  bro- 
ken and  dissipated  by  the  harvesting  and  threshing.  Threshing  in 
the  field  would  no  doubt  in  this  case  be  preferable;  as  the  drier  the 
crop  is  when  threshed  the  more  readily  woold  the  smut  grains  be 
broken. 

S-NOS^'.  In  the  northern  states  snow  is  very  useful  in  protecting 
■winter  grain  and  grass  from  the  severity  of  the  frosts.  Winter  grain 
or  grasses  which  have  been  covered  through  the  frosty  season,  will 
grow  much  more  rapidly  in  the  spring  than  those  which  have  lain 
bare.  Snows  may,  however,  fall  too  soon,  and  lie  too  long  for  winter 
grain,  as  in  that  case  it  is  apt  to  be  smothered. 

Snow  is  useful  in  preserving  all  fresh  meat  during  the  cold  season. 
Let  the  meat  be  first  a  little  frozen  on  the  outside,  then  put  it,  on  a 
cold  day,  into  casks  filled  with  snow,  laying  the  snow  between  each 
piece  so  that  they  will  not  touch  each  other,  nor  the  sides  of  the  cask. 
The  whole  is  to  be  constantly  kept  liable  to  the  action  of  the  frosts  ; 
and  in  this  way  the  meat  will  neither  grow  dry,  nor  lose  its  colour, 
during  the  frosty  season. 

SOILING  ov  CATTLE:  Feeding  cattle  in  stalls  during  the 
growing  season,  with  grass  cut  and  carried  in  to  them.  It  is  partic- 
ularly recommended  for  milch  cows,  working  horses  and  oxen,  and 
for  fatting  rattle;  and  Mr.  Young  also  recommends  that  swine  be 
soiletl  in  a  yard  for  the  purpose. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  of  husbandry  have  been  experienc- 
ed in  Europe;  and  it  is  strongly  recommended  by  Mr.  Young,  by 
the  compiler  of  "  The  Complete  Grazier,"  and  by  other  eminent 
farmers  of  Great-Britain.  A  communication  of  Dr.  Thaer,  physician 
to  the  Electoral  Court  of  Hanover,  to  the  Enslish  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, as  to  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the  Baron  de  Bulow  and 
others,  lays  down  the  following  as  facts  which  are  incontroverti- 
ble :— 

1.  A  sfK)t  of  ground  which,  when  pastured,  will  yield  only  sufficient 
food  for  OTU  head,  will  abuudautly  maintain  /our  when  kept  in  the 
stable. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  2i^33 

2.  Soiling  affords  at  least  double  the  quantity  of  manure  from  the 
same  number  of  cattle ;  for  the  best  summer  manure  is  produced  in 
the  stable,  and  carried  to  the  fields  at  the  most  proper  period  of  its 
fermentation;  whereas  when  spread  on  the  meadow,  and  exhaust- 
ed by  the  air  and  sun,  its  power  is  entirely  wasted. 
-3.  Cows  which  are  accustomed  to  soiling  will  yield  much  more  milk 
when  kept  in  this  manner ;  and  fatting  cattle  will  increase  much 
faster  in  weight. 
4.  They  are  less  subject  to  accidents  and  diseases ;  they  are  protect- 
ed from  the  flies  which  torment  them  in  the  fields  during  warm 
weather ;  and  they  do  not  suffer  from  the  heats  of  summer. 
There  are  other  advantages  attending  this  method  of  husbandry. 
The  trouble  of  driving  the  milch  cows  to  and  from  the  pastures,  three 
times  a  day,  is  saved ;  the  working  horses  and  oxen  are  always  at 
hand,  so  that  no  time  is  lost  in  going  after  them  ',  and,  what  is  of  no 
small  importance,  when  the  cattle  are  housed  the  growing  crops  are  ia 
more  safety. 

For  the  most  profitable  cultivation  of  the  earth,  it  is  requisite  that 
it  should  be  in  the  highest  state  of  fertility.  Some  manures  will  en- 
rich a  soil  to  a  certain  extent,  while  others  will  make  it  still  richer. 
Generally  speaking,  barn  dung  is  the  only  manure  to  which  every 
farmer  is  accessible,  with  which  grounds  may  be  fertilized  in  the  high^ 
est  degree.     But  how  is  a  sufficiency  of  this  to  be  had  ? 

If  all  vegetables  were  buried  while  green  in  the  soil  where  they 
grew,  the  manure  thus  afforded  by  them,  together  with  what  additions 
the  soil  receives  from  the  air  by  the  requisite  ploughings,  would  be 
constantly  increasing  its  fertility.  The  vegetable  mass  produced  on 
a  farm  is  indeed  left  on,  but  with  much  waste,  not  only  in  the  drying 
of  the  vegetables  before  they  are  put  into  the  barn,  but  in  the  drying 
and  washing  of  the  dung,  and  the  evaporation  of  its  best  parts,  when 
left  in  the  barn-yard,  before  it  is  mixed  with  the  soil;  and  by  the  still 
greater  waste  when  dropped  in  the  fields. 

The  essential  point,  then,  is  to  make  and  save  the  greatest  possible 
quantity  of  barn-dung  manure  from  a  given  quantity  of  ground;  and 
this  is  only  to  be  accomplished  by  soiling. 

For  this  purpose,  therefore,  some  of  the  most  intelligent  European 
farmers  have  barns  with  cellars  under  them  for  the  purpose  of  receir- 
ifig  the  dung  of  the  cattle,  and  into  these  the  dung  and  litter  is  con- 
stantly thrown,  where  it  is  prepared,  by  a  due  state  of  fermentation, 

30 


234  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

for  mixing  with  the  soil.  Suitable  earths  are  also  laid  behind  the 
cattle  to  absorb  their  stale  as  it  runs  backward,  anil  these,  when  sa- 
turated, are  also  thrown  down  and  mixed  with  the  dung.  Others, 
however,  object  to  cellars  as  the  receptacles  of  the  dung,  on  the 
ground  of  their  being  too  cool  for  the  process  of  its  fermentation  dur- 
ing summer,  and  prefer  sheds  adjoining  the  barn,  to  keep  the  dung 
under  cover  to  protect  it  from  the  rains.  Where  cellars  are  used  they 
should  not  be  too  deep,  and  should  be  well  opened  for  the  admission 
of  warm  air  during  summer. 

The  quality  of  the  dung  of  cattle  depends  much  on  their  food ;  that 
therefore  which  is  made  from  green  grass  will  be  found  superior  to 
that  made  from  dry  hay  ;  that  which  is  made  from  fatting  cattle  is  the 
best  of  any. 

Having  observed  thus  much,  I  will  proceed  to  lay  down  a  system 
of  field  husbandry,  in  connection  with  the  plan  of  soiling  cattle,  which 
I  presume  will  be  found  far  more  profitable  than  the  usual  method  of 
field  culture. 

Take  a  field  of  proper  extent,  say  for  instance  forty  acres,  as  near^ 
]y  square  as  may  be,  and  of  as  nearly  uniform  soil  as  can  be  had,  of  a 
gootl  gravelly  loam,  sandy,  sandy  loam,  or  other  good  arable  soil,  and 
sufficiently  level :  Clear  it  of  stones,  so  as  that  it  can  be  tilled  in  the 
most  com|)lete  manner :  Build  a  barn  in  the  centre  of  this  field,  with 
a  walled  cellar  under  it,  with  a  door  to  drive  in  with  a  cart  on  one 
side,  and  another  to  drive  out  at  the  opposite  side.  The  barn  is  to 
be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  field,  and  a  communication  to  be 
made  to  it  on  the  side  most  convenient,  by  a  lane.  For  a  more  mi- 
nute description,  a  plan  of  the  whole  is  here  laid  down. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 


23^ 


D 


5 

:E. 


IB: 


10 


11 


12 


A.  The  lane  to  the  barn, 

B.  The  barn  with  a  fence  round  it,  communicating  with  the  lane. 

C.  D.  E.  Divisions  of  the  field  into  four  equal  parts,  where  strips 
of  land  are  left  unploughed  wide  enough  for  a  cart  to  go  upon. 

1.2.  3.  <fcc.  Subdivisions  of  the  field,  on  which  are  cultivated 
crops  of  roots,  grain  and  grass,  in  rotation. 

In  this  barn  stables  are  to  be  fixed  for  keeping  a  number  of  milch 
cows,  working  horses  and  oxen,  or  fatting  cattle,  proportionate  to  the 
size  and  products  of  the  field.  They  are  to  be  kept  on  grass,  cut  and 
carried  iu  to  them  during  the  growing  season,  and  on  haj  and  other 
food  during  winter.  The  cows  should  be  let  out  each  day  during 
the  three  milking  times,  and  all  the  cattle  should  have  a  constant 
supply  of  water  from  a  well  made  near  the  barn  for  the  purpose. — 
During  summer  the  water  may  be  carried  to  the  cattle  in  troughs  in 
the  stable,  but  in  colder  weather  the  cattle  must  lie  let  out  to  troughs 
of  water  in  the  yard.  As  Lucerne  starts  early  in  the  spring,  and 
grows  late  in  the  fall,  it  will  probably  be  found  one  of  the  best  grasse* 
for  early  and  late  feeding.  Perhaps  some  other  grasses  may  be  found 
best  in  particular  soils,  and  for  particular  purposes. 

See  article  Grasses, 


236  far:mer's  assistant. 

The  common  trefoil,  or  red  clover,  which  is  mostly  cullivated 
in  this  country,  is  very  good  for  soiling.  The  morning's  supply  of 
gr.iss  should  be  brought  in  the  afternoon,  and  that  for  the  after- 
noon in  the  morning;  though  if  it  be  a  fact  that  dew  is  nourishing 
to  cattle,  it  would  seem  the  better  way  to  bring  in  the  whole  supply 
for  the  day  in  the  morning.  A  light  hand  cart  is  to  be  used  for  bring- 
ing in  the  grass  from  the  parts  of  the  field  nearest  the  barn. 

After  such  a  field  has  been  brought  under  complete  cultivation, 
and  enriched  by  this  mode  of  culture,  it  will  probably  keep,  winter 
and  summer,  about  tueuty-five  head  of  cows,  and  fatting  or  working 
cattle.  The  Lucerne  may  be  made  to  yield  sufficient  for  soiling  about 
six  head  per  acre,  or  six  or  seven  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  if  used  for 
that  purpose.  Some  other  grasses  will  |)erhaps  yield  nearly  equally 
well.  The  common  red  clover  may  be  made  to  yield  four  tons  of 
hay  per  acre  at  two  mowings,  and  is  excellent  as  a  lay  for  other 
crops.  About  four  hundred  loads  of  the  best  barn-dung  would  pro- 
bably be  afforded  yearly  from  such  a  field,  which  would  be  at  the  rate 
of  ten  loads  per  acre  each  year. 

The  extra  labor  required  for  cutting  and  carrying  in  the  grass,  and 
cleaning  the  stalls  of  the  cattle  twice  a  day  during  summer,  would 
probably  employ  one  hand  two  thirds  of  his  time.  In  return  for  this, 
the  farmer  saves  the  rent  of  at  least  twelve  acres  of  the  best  pasture 
land,  which  may  be  put  at  five  dollars  an  acre,  and  his  cows  give 
more  milk,  and  his  fatting  and  working  cattle  keep  better  and  thrive 
faster.  Here,  then,  the  farmer  is  amply  repaid  for  his  extra  lalx)r. 
But  the  great  superiority  of  the  soiling  system  lies  in  this — by  the 
great  quantity  of  excellent  manure  thus  afforded  the  farmer  is  enabled 
to  carry  on  a  system  of  field  culture  that  will  be  found  to  average  one 
half  more  of  clear  profit  than  can  be  expected  in  the  usual  mode. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  drawing  of  the  field  that  it  is  to  be  divided 
into  twelve  parts,  and  that  the  divisions  are  long  and  narrow;  this 
renders  them  more  convenient  for  ploughing,  as  will  be  presently  in- 
sisted.    We  will  begin  with  division  number  one. 

This  is  to  be  turned  over  in  the  fall  to  rot  the  sward,  and  well 
jmellowed  in  the  spring.  All  the  dung  made  during  Avinter  is  to  be 
ploughed  in,  and  the  ground  planted  with  potatoes.  See  article  Po- 
tatoes. If  properly  cultivated,  between  three  and  four  hundred 
bushels  of  this  root  may  be  expected  from  the  acre.  As  no  soil  can 
be  too  rich  for  Indian  corn,  give  the  ground  another  dunging  from  the 
i»tock  of  dung  made  during  summer,  plough  it  in,  and  next  season 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  237 

plant  it  with  this.  See  article  Indian  Corn.  Nearly  one  hundred 
bushels  to  the  acre  may  be  expected  of  this.  The  next  season  it  may 
be  sown  with  hemp,  and  a  large  crop  expected.  See  article  Hemp. 
After  the  hemp  has  come  off,  let  the  ground  be  lightly  ploughed,  and, 
after  all  seeds  have  come  up,  harrowed  or  drilled  in  with  wheat.  See 
article  Wheat.  Of  this  crop  a  hundred  bushels  may  be  expected. 
If  it  grows  too  rank  in  the  spring  let  it  be  mowed  off  at  a  proper  time. 
Let  red  clover  be  sown  on  the  wheat  in  the  spring,  and  lightly  brush- 
ed in  with  a  brush  harrow.  Some  gypsum  may  be  advantageously 
applied  to  the  clover  every  spring.  After  the  second  crop  is  taken 
off  the  second  year,  let  the  sward  be  well  turned  under  and  harrowed 
in  again  v/ith  wheat,  with  clover  sowed  the  next  spring,  and  gypsum 
applied  as  before ;  and  after  two  years  more  of  clover  crops  let  the 
ground  be  turned  up  in  the  fall  to  begin  again  with  potatoes. 

In  the  mean  time  other  courses  of  crops  may  be  occasionally  pur- 
sued, so  as  to  have  a  due  supply  of  Lucerne  constantly  on  hand. — 
Probably  it  might  be  found  most  advisable  to  cut  up  tlie  crop  of  Indian 
corn  as  soon  as  the  ears  have  become  sufficiently  hardened,  carry  it 
off  to  the  sides  of  the  piece,  there  set  it  up  in  shocks  to  ripen,  and  in 
the  meantime  sow  the  ground  thus  cleared ;  as  in  this  way,  the  grouud 
being  well  manured,  and,  by  two  hoed  crops,  well  cleared  of  weeds, 
would  afford  the  largest  crops  of  this  grass.  Gypsum,  or  other  good 
top-dressing,  should  also  be  applied  to  it,  as  might  be  found  requisite. 
Other  grasses  should  also  be  tried,  for  soiling  particularly ;  as  some 
of  these  may  be  found  best  for  some  soils,  especially  for  light  sandy, 
or  hard  dry  gravelly  ones.  Where  carrots  are  to  be  raised,  after  the 
ground  has  been  properly  prepared,  it  would  be  found  most  advi- 
sable to  keep  it  under  this  culture  for  several  years.  See  article  Car- 
rots. 

The  above  is  merely  an  outline  of  the  method  of  managing  the  di- 
visions of  the  field  ;  and  this  man;igement,  or  something  similar,  each 
is  in  turn  to  undergo;  varyins  the  cro()s,  however,  to  suit  the  soil, 
and  so  as  to  have  at  all  times  a  due  supjily  of  those  which  are  neces- 
sary for  carrying  on  the  business  of  soiliug  to  its  requisite  extent. 

It  has  been  before  mentioned  that  the  divisions  of  the  field  are  long 
and  narrow,  which  are  unfit  for  convenient  cross-ploughing.  No 
cross-ploughing  is  iutended  here;  it  is  only  useful  in  tearing  tough 
swards  to  pieces.  Here  there  can  he  no  tough  sward  formed  ;  and  as 
it  is  only  requisite  to  re-mellow  the  groimd,  it  can  lie  as  effectually 
done  by  ploughing  one  way  as  by  cross-ploughing.     lu  order  to  keep 


238  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  vegetable  mold  of  an  even  depth  over  the  surface,  the  furrows 
should  be  turned  first  the  one  way  and  then  the  other;  beginning  to 
back-furrow  where  the  last  parting  furrows  were  made,  and  then  the 
next  parting  furrows  will  be  where  the  last  back-furrows  were 
made. 

In  ploughing  the  lengthway  of  each  division,  and  having  no  short 
furrows,  the  work  will  be  much  accelerated,  as  no  time  is  lost  by  too 
frequent  turnings.  The  same  may  be  ol)served  in  regard  to  hoeing 
the  rows  of  hoed  crops,  and  cutting  the  swarths  in  reaping  and  mow- 
ing. With  long  furrows,  long  rows  and  long  swarths,  the  work  goes 
on  more  rapidly  than  with  short  ones. 

Any  calculation  is  here  omitted  of  stating  the  probaljle  expense  of 
these  crops,  and  from  thence  shewing  the  clear  profit  of  each,  as  eve- 
ry intelligent  farmer  can  do  this  for  himself;  but  on  an  average  it  may 
safely  be  affirmed  that  the  clear  profit  will  average  at  least  twenty 
dollars  an  acre.  The  plan  it  will  be  perceived  is  best  calculated  for 
having  a  dairy  combined  with  it,  and  tbis  naturally  includes  the  rear- 
ing of  swine.  Sec  article  Swine.  It  will  also  be  perceived  that  it  ia 
best  calculated  for  particular  pieces  ot  land  of  greater  or  less  extent 
as  they  may  be  found.  Small  pieces  may,  however,  be  advantage- 
ously cultivated  in  this  way,  even  of  as  small  extent  as  ten  acres; 
and  in  such  case  it  uouhl  be  most  advisable  to  set  the  barn  on  one 
side  of  the  field,  and  run  the  narrow  divisions  quite  across  it.  This 
plan  of  husbandry  appears  to  be  peculiarly  calculated  for  redeeming 
from  barrenness  many  light  sandy,  or  poor  gravelly  tracts  of  land  j 
and  generally  it  seems  well  adapted  to  almost  all  lands  that  are  to- 
lerably level. 

See  further,  article  Improvement  of  Lands. 

It  has  been  observed,  however,  that  those  cows  which  have  beea 
always  used  to  be  kepi  by  soiling  during  the  growing  season,  are  usu- 
ally more  profitalile  than  those  which  have  but  newly  been  put  to  this 
method  of  keeping. 

SOOT.  Forty  bushels  of  this  to  an  acre,  is  a  good  top-dressing 
for  almost  every  kind  of  summer  croj),  or  for  winter  crops,  when  sowed 
on  them  in  the  spring.  Let  it  be  powdered  fine  before  it  is  applied. 
It  is  also  very  good  for  cold  grass  lands. 

It  is  recommended  to  be  sown  over  turnips,  not  only  for  the  pur- 
pose of  manuring  the  ground,  hut  for  keeping  off  insects.  For  this 
purpose  let  it  be  finely  pulverized  and  sown  in  the  morning  while  the 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  23^ 

dew  is  on,  and  let  it  be  in  moderate  quantity,  lest  it  should  injure  the 
young  plants,  to  which  it  will  adhere  and  repel  the  insects. 

See  article  Manures. 

SOWING.  There  are  three  methods  of  committing  seeds  to  the 
ground. 

1.  In  hills,  which  is  usually  called  planting. 

2.  In  drills,  or  continued  rows:  And, 

3.  In  the  hroad  cast  method,  or  a  cast  of  the  hand. 

For  making  seeds  vegetate  more  readily,  sec  article  Germinatiox 
OF  Plants. 

By  the  drill  method  of  sowing,  about  one  half,  at  least,  of  the  seed 
requisite  for  sowing  may  be  saved ;  which  with  regard  to  wheat,  par- 
ticularly, is  a  matter  of  some  consequence. 

Sec  Rutherford's  essay  on  this  subject,  article  Drill. 

For  the  proper  time  of  committing  each  kind  of  seed  to  the  ground 
and  the  quantity  to  be  sown  of  each,  see  the  articles  of  which  the  seeds 
are  to  be  sowed. 

A  general  rule  which  prevails  in  regard  to  sowing  seeds,  is,  that 
the  largest  and  most  full  grown  be  sown.  It  is  said  that  small  seeds 
produce  small  stalks  and  small  seeds,  and  large  seeds  the  contrary. 
This,  it  is  believed,  is  a  matter  well  worth  attending  to,  particularly 
as  it  respects  the  different  kinds  of  grain  which  are  not  wholly  natu^ 
ralized  to  our  climate  or  to  our  soil. 

So\ving  too  early  in  the  spring  may  be  as  injurious  as  sowing  too 
late ;  for  if  the  ground  be  not  well  pulverized,  and  sufficiently  warm* 
ed  before  sowing,  the  seeds  Avill  come  up  slowly,  and  be  stunted  in 
their  growth. 

Duhamel  found  by  experiments,  that  few  seeds  will  come  up  if 
buried  more  than  nine  inches  in  the  soil ;  that  some  will  rise  very  weI5 
at  the  depth  of  six  inches;  and,  that  others  again  will  not  rise  if 
buried  two  inches.  Those  seeds  which,  in  vegetating,  are  thrown  out 
of  the  ground,  such  as  beans,  &c.  ought  to  be  buried  lightly ;  and,  in 
general,  it  may  be  observed,  that  very  few  seeds  require  to  be  very 
deeply  buried.  In  light  soils  they  should  be  buried  deeper  than  in 
stiff  and  cold  ones.  When  the  ground  is  rolled  after  sowing,  seeds 
will  come  up  with  a  lighter  covering  of  earth  than  where  this  is  not 
done. 

Much  depends  on  having  the  seeds  sowed  as  evenly  as  possible; 
and  for  this  purpose  they  ought  to  be  sowed  when  the  weather  is  not 
■windy,  particularly  those  which  are  light  or  easily  wafted  away.     In 


240  FAR.MER'S  ASSISTANT. 

sowing  some  seeds,  it  is  adrisable  to  go  over  the  ground  twice ;  soir- 
injr  one  Iialf  of  the  intended  allowance  or  seed  one  waj,  and  the  other 
halt"  crosswise. 

Previous  to  sowing,  the  most  seeds  should  be  steeped  in  some  fer- 
tilizing liquor,  and  then  dried,  either  with  lime,  ashes,  or  gypsum- 
For  the  prevention  of  smut,  lye,  d;c.  has  already  been  mentioned. 

Sec  article  Smut. 

Mr.  Johnson  recommends,  adding  about  six  ounces  of  saltpetre,  to 
be  dissolved  in  as  much  lye  as  w  ill  immerse  a  bushel  of  grain.  Thi? 
be  advises  more  particularly  for  Indian  corn  and  wheat ;  and  he  men- 
tions an  instance  where  it  made  a  part  of  a  field  of  wheat,  the  seed  of 
"which  had  been  steeped  in  this  way,  as  much  as  twenty-five  per  cent 
better  than  the  rest  of  the  same  field.  Let  the  seed  be  steeped  about 
twenty -four  hours. 

Grain  that  is  designed  for  sowing  should  always  be  kept  well  aired, 
for  if  deprived  of  this  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  it  will  not  ve- 
getate. IMr.  iNIiller  took  fresh  seeds  of  different  kinds,  a  part  of  each 
he  jnit  into  phials,  and  sealed  them  so  as  to  exclude  the  air.  and  the 
rest  he  kept  exposed  to  it.  After  a  twelvemonth  he  sowed  each  oa 
different  parts  of  the  aame  bed,  when  all  of  those  came  up  that  were 
exjKJsed  to  the  air,  but  none  of  those  which  were  excluded  from  it. 

Where  land  is  very  rich,  it  ought  generally  to  have  more  seed  than 
if  it  be  poor ;  and  if  the  size  of  the  grains  be  large,  the  quantity  sowa 
should  be  greater  than  where  they  are  small. 

SPAVIN.  A  swelling  about  the  joints  of  horses,  causing  lamenes?. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  this  disorder — a  bloo<l  spavin  and  a  bag  spavin- 
The  former  is  a  swelling  of  tlie  vein  that  runs  along  the  inside  of  the 
middle  joint  of  the  hind  legs,  which  is  frequently  attended  with  a 
lameness  of  thejoint. 

To  cure  it,  says  Mr.  Gibson,  first  apply  restringents  and  a  bandage 
tightly  drawn  round  thejoint ;  for  these,  if  early  applied,  will  general- 
ly effect  a  cure ;  but  if  by  these  means  the  vein  is  not  reduced  to  itf 
usual  dimensions  the  skin  should  be  opened,  and  the  vein  tied  with  a 
crooked  needle  and  wax-thread,  passed  underneath,  above  ami  below 
the  swelling,  and  the  turgid  part  will  then  digest  away  with  the  liga- 
tures. Let  the  wound  be  daily  dressed  with  a  mixture  of  turpentine, 
honey,  aou  spirit  of  wine. 

The  bag  spavin  is  merely  a  cyst,  or  bag,  filled  with  the  gelatinous 
matter  of  the  joint,  irrupted  from  its  proper  place.  To  cure  this,  cut 
iiito  the  bag,  and  let  the  matter  discharge ;  then  dress  tbe  sere  witli 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  241 

lint  dipped  in  oil  of  tiirpentiue,  puttin?  into  it,  once  in  three  or  four 
days,  a  powder  made  of  calcined  vitriol,  alum  and  bole.  By  this  me- 
tho<l  of  dressing,  the  bag  will  come  away,  and  a  cure  will  be  effected 
without  any  visible  scar. 

Should  this  fail  of  a  cure,  the  hot  iron  is  directed  to  be  applied  ; 
and  in  that  case,  if  the  joint  becomes  inflamed,  apply  a  poultice  over 
the  dressings  till  the  swelling  is  reduced. 

SPAYING.  It  is  recommended  to  spay  sows,  as  this  prevents 
conception,  and  will  cause  them  to  have  more  fat  than  the  barrows. 
Heifers  are  also  splayed  in  Great-Britain  where  they  are  raised  mere- 
ly for  fatting.  The  method  of  performing  this  with  effect  is  best  learn- 
ed by  practice. 

SPELT.  This  is  a  grain  much  used  for  bread  in  Germany.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  the  ancient  frumentacious  tribute  which  the  Romans 
formerly  exacted  from  that  country.  It  resembles  wheat,  but  is 
smaller,  and  darker  coloured,  and  is  bearded,  with  only  two  rows  on 
an  ear. 

It  may  be  sowed  in  autumn,  or  in  the  spring,  and  delights  in  a 
dry  soil. 

SPIKY  ROLLER.  This  instrument  is  much  recommended  by 
some  English  writers  for  mellowing  clay  ground  that  is  baked  in  clods. 
It  is  also  recommended  to  be  passed  over  fields  of  wheat  in  the  spring, 
for  the  purpose  of  loosening  the  ground,  and  then  to  be  followed  by  a 
brush-harrowing.  This  would  no  doubt  be  very  useful ;  and  would 
afford  a  fine  opportunity  for  sowing  clover-seed  on  the  crop.  Its  fur- 
ther use  is  to  tear  and  loosen  old  grass-bound  meadows,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  the  grass  grow  more  thriftily  again. 

It  is  merely  a  wooden  roller  with  iron  teeth,  or  spikes,  drove  into 
it.  They  are  to  be  about  seven  inches  long,  and  drove  three  inches 
into  the  wood,  and  set  four  inches  apart,  in  diagonal  rows  round  the 
roller.     The  outer  ends  are  not  to  be  sharp  but  square. 

SPIN' AGE.     Sec  article  Greens. 

SPROUTS.  Where  woods  are  cut  off  which  are  apt  to  sprout,  the 
best  way  is  to  persevere  in  destroying  the  sjirouts  as  fast  as  they  ap- 
pear, because  the  longer  they  are  suffered  to  grow,  the  more  di3icult 
it  becomes  to  extirpate  them,  particularly  in  wet  meadow  lands.  la 
these  the  difficulty  is  increased  on  account  of  their  taste  being  less  pa- 
latable than  those  of  uplands,  aiul  therefore  cattle  are  less  inclined  to 
pat  them.     In  such  giounds,  the  best  way  is  to  cut  off  the  sprouts 

M 


242  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

four  or  five  times  in  the  first  season,  and  this  will  pretty  much  destroy 
them.  If  a  swamp  can  be  floo<led  two  or  three  years,  it  will  effectu- 
ally destroy  sprouts  and  every  other  growth;  or  if  it  can  be  drained 
dry,  it  so  alters  the  nature  of  the  soil,  that  its  growth  of  wood  soon  in- 
clines to  die  for  want  of  its  usual  moisture. 

The  best  method  of  destroying  sprouts,  is  to  beat  them  off  from  the 
stumps.  This  can  be  done  with  the  pole  of  an  axe,  and  the  more  the 
stump  is  battered,  and  its  bark  beat  off  round  the  roots,  the  more  ef- 
fectually will  the  further  growth  ol  sprouts  be  prevented. 

SPUR.  A  disease  in  rye.  The  grains  which  are  affected  with  it 
are  larger  than  the  rest,  mostly  crooked,  bitter  to  the  taste,  projecting 
beyond  their  husks,  dark  coloured,  rough,  and  deeply  furrowed  from 
end  to  end. 

This  kind  of  diseased  grain  sometimes  proves  \ery  destructive  to 
those  who  eat  it.  In  some  parts  of  France,  where  the  disease  mostly 
prevails,  the  peasants  who  eat  it  are  liable  to  be  attacked  with  a  dry 
gangrene  in  the  extreme  parts  of  the  body,  which  causes  those  parts 
to  fall  off,  almost  without  pain.  "  The  Hotel  Dieu,  at  Orleans,"  says 
Duhamel,  "  has  had  many  of  these  miserable  objects,  who  bad  not 
any  thing  more  remaining  than  the  bare  trunk  of  the  body,  and  yet 
lived  in  that  condition  several  days." 

It  is  not  every  year  that  the  sjiur  produces  these  effects  ;  and  if  the 
grain  be  kept  a  certain  time  belore  it  is  eaten  it  will  not  he  hurtful.  It 
is  believed,  however,  that  no  very  bad  effects  have  been  known  in  this 
country  from  eating  this  kind  of  rye. 

STABLE  AND  STALLS.  The  stable  should  be  so  well  in- 
closed as  to  defend  the  beasts  from  the  winds  and  storms,  and  at  the 
same  time  it  should  not  be  too  warm,  lest  it  make  them  tender  when 
exposed  to  the  weather. 

The  stable  should  have  a  good  floor,  descending  a  little  backwards, 
so  that  the  stale  will  run  off  iiehind.  It  should  be  divided  into  sepa- 
rate .ipartments,  or  stalls,  for  each  beast  to  stand  by  itself.  There 
should  be  a  good  manger  for  horses,  and  the  rack  which  holds  their 
hay  should  be  upright  and  not  too  high.  Some  p-efer  putting  the  hay 
into  a  very  large  manger,  or  trough,  made  for  the  purpose,  and  what 
is  left  by  horses  can  in  this  way  be  given  to  other  cattle,  as  they  will 
eat  it  very  readily. 

Stables  should  be  kept  clean  and  well  littered,  to  keep  the  beasts 
comfortable  when  they  lie  down.  Some  advise  boring  holes  through 
the  floor  to  let  off  the  stale  more  readilv.     For  horses  there  should  be 


FAR.AIER'S  ASSISTANT.  243 

sufficient  room  in  the  stalls  to  turn  llieir  lieads  to  every  part  of  their 

bodies,  and  to  raise  them  as  high  as  tliey  please. 

STAGGERS.     A  disease  in  some  kinds  of  cattle.     If  the  sta*- 

gering  of  a  horse  be  owing  to  hard  usage,  Gihson  directs  to  take  a 

innt  of  blood  from  his  neck,  and  then  a  quart  from  some  vein  in  his 
hmder  parts,  and  that  he  be  then  kept  on  moderate  cleansing  diet. 

When  the  disease  arises  from  an  apoplectic  disorder,  he  must  be 
treated  as  before,  and  exercised  every  day  with  chewing  assafoetida, 
savin,  and  all  other  noisome  things,  which  will  keep  him  in  constant 
action,  and  forward  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  small  vessels. 
Afterwards,  recourse  must  be  had  to  clysters,  strong  purgatives,  rub- 
biug  and  exercise. 

When  it  arises  from  a  swimming  of  the  head,  the  animal  reels,  turns 
round,  and  falls.  For  this,  take  an  ounce  of  senna,  boiled  in  five  pints 
of  water,  with  four  ounces  of  common  treacle,  and  the  usual  quantity 
of  oils  or  lard,  to  throw  ia  as  a  clyster,  and  repeat  this  for  two  or  three 
days;  after  this  he  may  have  a  drench  of  beer,  in  which  the  roots  of 
peony,  angelica,  rue,  rosemary,  and  flowers  of  lavender  have  been 
steeped.  If  the  disease  continues  obstinate,  balls  of  cinnibar,  and  as- 
safoetida,  with  bay-berries,  will  be  proj.er  here,  as  in  apoplectic 
cases. 

Mr.  Gibson  condemns  the  practice  of  putting  ginger  and  other 
stimulating  things  into  the  ear  as  dangerous,  though  it  may  sometimes 
prove  beneficial. 

STALE.  It  is  believed  the  stale  of  cattle  is  almost  as  valuable  as 
a  manure,  as  their  dung,  and  that  pains  ought  therefore  to  be  taken  to 
prevent  its  being  lost. 

For  the  best  method  of  preserving  it  in  stables,  see  article  New 
Husbandry. 

The  Hollanders,  it  is  said,  are  as  careful  in  saving  the  stale  of  their 
cattle  as  their  dung.  The  older  it  is,  the  better,  as  a  manure.  Old 
urine  is  also  said  to  be  an  excellent  application  to  the  roots  of  trees ; 
but  too  much  ought  not  to  be  applied,  for  in  that  case  it  sometimes' 
kills  them. 

See  article  MANaTRES. 

See  further,  article  Urixe. 

STOCK.  Vv'hen  an  English  farmer  speaks  o^stockino-  a  farm,  he 
means  the  requisite  number  of  ploughs,  harrows,  carts,  and  oth,r' im- 
plements of  husbandry,  beside  cattle  of  different  kinds,  for  carrying  on 
the  business  of  husbandry  on  that  farm  to  advantage;  in  the  same 


244  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

way  that  a  merchant  or  manufacturer  speaks  of  the  stock,  or  capital, 
w^hich  i?  requisite  to  carry  on  any  I»ranch  of  trade  or  manufacture. 
But  farmers  in  this  country.  t>ein^  Hut  little  used  to  renting  farms,  do 
but  seldom  enter  into  calculation?  of  tbi?  kind  :  and  hy  tlii:;  means  the 
word  stock  has  here  acquired  a  different  meaoins  in  regard  to  farniing 
business;  it  means  merely  the  number  of  cattle  of  different  kinds 
•which  a  farmer  keeps  on  hi?  farm.  It  would,  nevertheless,  be  well 
for  those  who  are  obliged  to  rent  farms  in  tbi?  countr}",  to  examine 
Srst  whether  they  can  acquire  the  requisite  aiock  for  any  farm,  agree- 
ably to  the  English  meaning,  before  they  attempt  to  hire  ;  as  by  not 
having  this  they  olten  injure  themselves,  as  well  as  their  landlords. 

Young  stock  are  always  more  profitable  than  old;  as  these,  whea 
turned  off  to  fat.  do  not  answer  so  well  as  those  which  are  but  little 
past  their  prime.  It  costs  more  to  fatten  old  cattle,  and  their  meat  i? 
not  so  valuable. 

Stock  should  be  suitable  to  the  soil  on  which  they  are  fed.  If  their 
pastures  be  chiefly  dry  hills,  sheep  is  the  best.  If  they  be  grounds 
fit  for  the  cultivation  of  clover,  and  various  other  grasses,  the  dairy, 
or  fatting  of  cattle,  may  he  best :  and  if  ihey  he  wet  grounds,  which 
only  produce  coarse  grasses,  the  raising  of  horses  will  be  found  most 
profitable. 

The  profit  of  raising  horses  depends  much  on  the  breeding  mares, 
and  also  on  the  price  which  can  be  obtained  for  horses.  Generally 
speaking,  the  farmer  will  do  better  in  turning  his  attention  to  the  l»est 
breeds  of  sheep,  if  his  pasture  lands  be  suitable.  The  dairj^  is  also 
profitable,  where  properly  managed  uith  regard  to  the  milk ;  and  also 
irith  regard  to  raising  a  due  proportion  of  swine,  with  the  aid  of  clo- 
Ter,  and  the  skim-milk,  whey,  aud  butter-milk  together. 

See  articles  Dairy  and  Swine. 

But  as  stocks  of  cattle  are  found  to  degenerate,  unless  pains  be 
taken  to  prevent  it.  an  essential  |>oint  of  husbandry  lies  in  taking  the 
proper  steps  lor  improving  the  breeds.  Some  cows  will  give  double 
the  quantity  of  milk  which  others  give,  and  of  better  quality.  Some 
bulls  beget  much  finer  and  larger  calves  than  others.  Some  sheep 
bear  more  wool,  and  of  better  quality  than  others;  and  some  rams  be- 
get lambs  possessing  these  qualities  in  a  superior  degree  to  others. 
Similar  observation*  may  be  made  of  some  breeds  of  horses  and  of 
swine.  The  essential  point,  therefore,  is,  for  the  farmer  to  be  diligent 
in  selecting  those  breeds  which  are  found  to  be  most  valuable,  a^well 
from  those  raised  in  his  own  stock,  aa  from  those  which  may  be  ob- 


FARMER'S  AF^SISTANT.  245 

talned  elsewhere.  Let  him  persevere  in  constantly  selecting  the  best 
breeds  for  a  stock,  rejecting  all  others,  and  he  will  presently  find  his 
stock  very  greatly  improved. 

In  Great-Britain  much  pains  are  taken  to  improve  the  breeds  of 
cattle  and  the  success  attending  such  exertions  are  very  encouraging. 
In  some  of  their  agricultural  publications  mention  is  made  of  prodigi- 
ous prices  being  given  for  certain  animals  of  superior  breed  :  Such  as 
a  bull  of  Mr.  Paget,  having  been  sold  in  the  year  1793  for  four  hun- 
dred guineas :  Heifers  belonging  to  him  for  eighty-four  guineas 
apiece;  and  ewes  for  sixty-four  guineas  a  piece.  In  Monicas  Ag- 
ricultural Dictionary,  there  is  also  mention  made  of  a  Mr.  Richard 
Ashley  having  swine,  the  boars  of  which  he  let  to  sows  at  ha!f-a-gui- 
nea  each ;  and  of  a  Rlr.  Bishop  who  sold  his  pig?,  at  weaning  time, 
lor  two  guineas  a  piece.  Such  examples  might  also  be  produced 
here,  if  the  requisite  pains  were  taken,  and  the  profits  attending  them 
are  surely  sufficient  to  gratify  even  avarice  itself. 

Above  all,  let  the  farmer  keep  no  greater  slock  than  he  can  sup- 
port well.  The  half  of  any  given  number  of  cattle,  wl'.ere  tJiey  are 
well  kept,  will  ahvays  be  found  to  yield  as  much  clear  profit  to  the 
owner,  as  the  whole  when  kept  in  [>oor  condition.  Poor  keeping  also 
ie?irns  cattle  to  be  unruly  ;  and  when  they  have  learned  this  efiectu- 
ally,  they  only  prove  a  bill  of  expense,  instead  of  an  article  of  profit, 
to  the  owner. 

STONES.  Where  arable  lands  particularly  abound  M'ith  these, 
no  good  culture  can  be  carried  on.  The  first  step  then  is  to  clear 
such  lands  of  the  stones,  and  let  this  be  tlone  effectually  ;  carrying  oft" 
the  small  ones  and  digging  out  the  large  ones,  so  that  there  be  no  ob- 
structions to  the  plough. 

Some  lands  may  indeed  be  too  stony  to  be  cleared  of  them  to  any 
present  advantage.  Let  such  be  left  to  the  prowess  of  future  genera- 
tion'?; they  will  undoubtedly  find  their  account  in  clearing  such,  and 
find  use  for  the  stones.  If  they  be  not  all  wanted  for  fences,  buildings, 
&c.  they  maybe  (bund  useful  in  making  hollow  drains,  6:c. 

If  stones  be  very  badly  shapen,  so  that  they  will  not  lie  in  a  wall, 
perhaps  the  better  way  may  be  to  throw  them  aside,  and  make  hedge 
fences;  but  if  they  be  chiefly  well  shaped,  let  them  be  made  into 
walls;  for  these,  if  properly  made,  will  last  an  age,  with  some  trifling 
repairs.  The  best  method  of  making  these,  is  to  dig  a  trench  where 
the  wall  is  to  he  made,  to  the  dejjth  of  about  eighteen  inches ;  into 
this  throw  all  the  small  and  bad  shaped  stones,  until  the  trench  is  fill. 


246  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

ed ;  then  on  the  top  of  these  build  the  wall,  in  a  mason-lUce  manner, 
to  the  height  of  about  five  feet,  and  throw  the  earth  dug  out  of  the 
trench  uj)  against  the  wall  on  each  side;  and  in  this  way  it  will  stand 
for  a  length  of  time  beyond  the  memory  of  man.  If  a  trench  iie  not 
dug  in  this  manner,  the  next  best  method  is  to  plough  deep  trenches 
close  on  each  side  of  the  wall,  after  it  is  built,  and  throw  the  earth 
thus  ploughed  up,  against  the  wall. 

Where  stones  arc  very  large,  and  cannot  be  removed  wilhoul  break- 
ing them,  the  best  way  is  to  split  them  to  pieces.  For  this  pur|)Ose, 
drill  two  hofes  in  opposite  sides,  according  to  the  grain  of  the  stone  ; 
then  fill  each  hole  mih  two  half  cylindrical  pieces  of  iron,  and  be- 
tween these  drive  a  long  steel  wedge.  In  this  way  large  stones  or 
rocks  may  be  split  out  into  proper  shapes  for  good  building  stones,  or 
for  other  purposes.  Building  fires  on  large  stones  will  also  render 
them  liable  to  be  broken  to  pieces  while  they  are  thus  heated. 

By  experiments  accurately  made,  it  is  found,  that  small  stones  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  beneficial,  in  a  small  degree,  in  increas- 
ing its  products;  but  they  are  too  troublesome  in  good  cultivalion  to 
be  desirable  on  account  of  all  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  them. 

Where  ground  is  full  of  small  stones,  they  may  be  drove  down  so 
as  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  scythe,  by  having  a  roller  passed  over 
the  ground  in  the  spring,  when  it  is  very  soft,  as  the  stones  are  then 
easily  pressed  into  it. 

STOCKING  OR  SHOCKING.  Let  ten  sheaves  be  disposed  in 
two  rows,  each  leaning  against  the  other;  then  let  two  sheaves  be 
laid  on  the  top,  so  as  that  the  but  of  one  lies  under  the  but  of  the  otlier, 
having  the  heads  hanging  dj^vnwards.  In  this  way,  wheat  or  other 
grain  will  keep  very  well.  Another  method  is  to  make  little  stacks 
of  an  hundred  sheaves  or  more,  in  each.  They  are  made  with  the 
heads  inmost  and  uppermost,  and  over  the  top  of  the  whole,  a  large 
>sheaf  is  tied  close  to  the  but  end,  and  the  other  end  spread  all  round 
the  top  of  the  stack,  to  preserve  it  from  the  rains.  This  is,  no  doubl, 
the  best  method  for  saving  the  grain  from  the  effects  of  long  and 
heavy  rains. 

STRAIN  OR  SPRAIN.  Horses  are  liable  to  strains,  partictilarly 
.in  their  shoulders.  Anointing  them  with  spirits  of  turpentine  in  the 
part  injured,  will  help  them  for  a  while,  but  will  not  afford  a  perma- 
nent relief.  Washing  the  shoulder  when  that  part  is  affected,  with 
brine,  as  warm  as  it  can  well  be  borne,  will  effect  a  cure  in  a  lew 
days.    Let  it  be  done  twice  a  day;  and  letting  the  animal  rest  from 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  247 

labor  will  generally  perform  a  cure  in  a  few  weeks  at  farthest.  If 
these  will  not  answer,  let  warm  poultices  be  applied,  of  bran,  boiled 
in  vinegar,  with  a  sufficiency  of  hog's-Iard  to  prevent  its  growing  hard; 
let  this  be  repeated,  if  necessary,  until  the  cure  is  completed ;  and 
then  mind  to  keep  that  part  covered  a  while,  so  that  it  shall  not  be 
afifectetl  by  colds. 

STRAWBERRY;  (Fragaria.)  The  Chili;  the  haut-boy;  the 
rvood;  and  the  scarlet  strawberry,  are  each  esteemed  ;  but  the  latter 
is  mostly  cultivated.  A  light  loamy  soil  is  best  for  raising  them ;  and 
it  should  not  be  dunged  much,  lest  they  should  run  too  much,  and  of 
course  be  less  fruitful. 

They  are  first  to  be  sown  from  the  seeds,  in  a  bed,  which  is  to  be 
kept  clean  of  weeds.  In  this  they  are  to  be  kept  three  years  before 
transplanting.  They  are  to  Joe  transplanted  in  September  or  the  be- 
ginning of  October.  The  ground  into  which  they  are  to  be  trans- 
planted, is  to  be  laid  out  into  beds  four  feet  wide,  with  alleys  between 
each,  of  the  width  of  two  feet.  The  plants  are  to  be  set  fifteen  in- 
ches apart,  in  rows  each  way.  Mr.  Miller  says,  "  the  plants  should 
never  be  taken  from  old  neglected  beds,  where  the  plants  have  been 
suffered  to  run  into  a  multitude  of  suckers ;"  that  those  should  be 
avoided  which  are  not  fruitful ;  "  and  those  offsets  which  stand  near- 
est to  the  old  plants  should  be  preferred  to  those  which  are  produced 
from  the  trailing  stalks  at  a  greater  distance." 

When  they  become  unfruitful,  which  is  generally  at  the  end  of 
three  years,  they  must  be  again  transplanted. 

Mr.  Miller  directs,  that  the  vines  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  during 
summer,  and  that  all  the  runners,  or  suckers,  be  pulled  off  as  fast  as 
they  appear,  which  will  be  productive  of  a  plentiful  crop  the  next 
spring  after  planting.  The  old  plants  produce  the  fruit;  the  suckers 
yield  none  until  after  a  full  year's  growth  ;  and  they  serve  to  rob  the 
old  plants  of  that  nourishment  which  is  so  essential  to  their  fruit- 
fulness. 

In  autumn,  let  the  plants  be  again  divested  of  their  strings  and  run- 
ners, and  the  beds  be  again  cleared  of  weeds.  Mr.  Miller  directs, 
that  some  tanner's  bark  be  then  spread  over  the  ground,  and  that  this 
when  afterwards  buried  in  the  soil  will  serve  as  a  dressing  for  the 
vines.  He  further  directs,  that  some  moss,  or  straw,  perhaps,  will  do 
as  well,  be  spread  round  under  the  vines  to  keep  the  fruit  from  the 
ground. 


L'48  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Ad  improved  method  of  cultivating  the  Al|)ine  strawbefry,  is  as 
follows : — 

''  Sow  the  seed  on  a  moderate  hot-bed  in  the  beginning  of  April, 
and  as  soon  as  the  plants  have  acciuired  sufficient  strength,  transplant 
them  in  oi)en  beds.  They  will  begin  to  blossom  after  midsummer, 
and  afford  an  abundant  autumnal  crop."' 

Mr.  Knight,  who  reports  the  foregoing  method  of  treatment,  thinks, 
that  this  plant  should  always  be  cultivated  as  an  annual  one. 

STUBBLE.  Where  the  stubble  is  large,  as  it  will  be  where  the 
o-rain  is  large,  and  is  reaped,  the  ground  will  be  very  considerably  be- 
nefitted by  ploiiching  it  under  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  taken  off;  where- 
as if  it  be  suffered  to  stand  until  it  is  perfectly  dried,  and  all  the  juices 
evajwrated.  it  Avill  then  do  the  ground  little  or  no  good.  In  this  way 
too  the  seeds  of  many  w  eeds  are  prevented  from  ripening. 

SUNFLOWER;  (HcUanlhwf.)  It  is  found,  that  the  seeds  of  this 
plant  afford  an  oil  equal  to  that  of  the  olive-tree;  and  it  is  said,  that 
seventv  bushels  of  this  seed  may  easily  be  raised  from  an  acre.  The 
jilant  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil  that  is  sufficiently  strong;  and  it 
is  bv  no  means  difficult  to  cultivate.  It  is  believed,  that  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  plant  for  making  oil,  might  be  found  verj-  profitable.  The 
seeds  are  also  very  good  for  feeding  poultry  during  the  winter 
season. 

From  a  bushel  of  this  seed,  says  the  Editor  of  '•  Tlie  JVatdiman,"  a 
crallon  of  oil,  as  fine  as  that  which  we  import  from  Florence,  may  be 
obtained  at  any  time,  quite  soft,  bland,  and  fresh;  and  tJie  mass  that 
remains,  after  pressing  out  the  oil,  is  of  excellent  u?e  to  feed  hogs, 
poultry,  «S.:c.  He  further  observes,  that  the  inhabitants  of  unwholsome 
places  should  be  diligent  in  cultivating  this  plant,  on  account  of  the 
vast  quantity  of  oxygene  gas  which  it  produces ;  it  having  been  prov- 
ed, that  near  twenty  times  as  much  of  this  gas  is  {)roduccd  in  twenty- 
Ibur  hours  by  one  plant,  in  light  and  clear  weather,  as  a  man  respires, 
in  an  impure  atnx)sphere,  in  that  space  of  time. 

The  plants  should  be  raised  in  rows  and  cultivated  in  the  manner 
of  hoed  crops. 

SURFEIT.  A  disease  to  which  cattle,  and  particularly  horses, 
are  liable.  In  horses  it  is  generally  the  effect  of  intense  labor,  or 
overheating.  The  skin  becomes  dry  and  full  of  dander,  or  of  scabs. 
if  the  disease  be  more  inveterate.  The  hair  of  the  animal  stands  out, 
and  he  has  a  dull  sluggish  look. 


FARiMElVS  ASSISTANT.  249 

Some  have  merely  Ibis  look  and  appearance  of  the  hair,  while  they 
grow  lean  and  hide- bound,  without  any  irruptions  of  the  skin.  Some 
have  what  is  called  a  wet  surfeit,  in  which  case  sharp  thin  humors 
run  from  the  scabs.  This  is  often  attended  with  great  heat,  inflam- 
mations-, and  sudden  swellings  of  the  neck,  which  causes  great  quan- 
tities of  briny  liquor  to  issue  from  that  part,  and  if  not  allayed  will 
collect  on  the  withers,  and  protluce  the  fistula,  or  about  the  head,  and 
produce  the  poll-evil. 

To  cure  the  dry  surfeit,  the  author  of  "  The  Complete  Farmer'*  dir 
rects,  first,  to  take  away  three  or  lour  pounds  of  blood,  and  then  give 
the  following  purge,  w  hich  will  work  as  an  alterative,  and  should  be 
repeated  once  a  week  for  some  time. 

"  Take  succotrine  aloes,  six  drachms,  or  one  ounce;  gumguaicum, 
half  an  ounce;  diaphoretic  antimony,  and  powder  of  myrrh,  of  each, 
two  drachms,  and  make  the  whole  into  a  ball  with  syrup  of  buckr 
thorn." 

!n  the  intermediate  days,  an  ounce  of  the  following  powder  should 
be  given,  morning  and  evening  with  his  feed. 

"  Take  native  cinnabar,  or  cinnabar  of  antimony,  finely  powdered, 
half  a  pound  ;  crude  antimony  in  fine  powder,  four  ounces ;  gum 
guaicum  in  powder,  four  ounces  :  make  the  whole  into  sixteen  doses, 
for  eight  days." 

The  medecine  must  be  repeated  till  the  horse  coats  well,  and  the 
symptoms  of  the  disease  disappear.  If  the  scabs  do  not  come  off, 
anoint  them  with  mercurial  ointment.  This  ointment  alone  well  pub- 
bed  into  the  blood,  and  aided  by  purges,  will  also  commonly  eflfeci 
a  cure. 

For  the  wet  surfeit,  bleed  plentifully,  avoiding  externally  all  re- 
pellers,  and  in  the  morning  while  fasting,  give  cooling  physic  twice 
a  week,  composed  of  four  ounces  of  lenitive  electuary,  four  of  cream 
of  tartar,  and  four  of  Glauber's  salts,  quickened  with  a  little  jalap. 

After  three  or  four  of  these  purgings,  give  two  ounces  of  nitre, 
made  into  a  ball  with  honey,  everj''  morning  for  a  fortnight;  and  if 
successful,  repeat  this  a  fortnight  longer.  The  above  may  also  be 
given  with  the  horses  food  ;  or  a  strong  decoction  of  logwood  may  be 
given  alone,  at  the  rate  of  two  quarts  a  day.  Where  the  disease  proves 
obstinate,  the  medicine  must  be  continued  a  considerable  length  of 
time,  lo  prove  effectual. 

The  horse  should  be  kept  dry,  and  his  food  should  be  cool  and  opeu- 
iflg.     If  he  is  hide-bound,  give  him  fenugreek  seeds  for  some  time. 

32 


250*  FARll^R'S  ASSISTAPsT. 

Where  the  disorder  proceeds  from  worms,  give  the  mercurial  physic- 
and  afterwards  the  cinnabar  powder,  as  al>OTe  directed. 

The  author,  from  whose  work  the  above  directions  are  taken,  ob- 
serves, however,  ihat  as  this  disease  is  not  alwars  original,  but  attend- 
ant on  others,  in  the  cure,  regard  should  be  had  to  the  first  cause,  and 
thus  the  removal  of  the  complaint  may  be  variously  affected. 

SWARD.  A  stiff  sreen  sward  is  an  infallil)le  indication  of  the 
ground  being  in  good  condition  for  bearing  a  good  crop  ;  but  it  is  not 
an  equally  certain  indication  of  a  good  soil ;  as  the  sward  may  be  the 
effect  of  strong  manuring.  Some  soils  again  which  incline  to  moss, 
when  they  have  lain  untilled  for  some  time,  exhibit  a  greater  degree 
of  poverty  than  they  really  possess.  Earths,  however,  which,  without 
manuring,  bear  a  stiff  green  sward,  may  always  be  pronounced  good, 
whatever  may  be  their  colour ;  but  perhaps  only  good  for  certain  pro- 
ductions. 

A  stiff  sward,  well  turned  over,  will  generally  bear  a  pretty  good 
crop,  of  any  growth  which  is  suitable  to  the  soil ;  as  the  rotting  of  the 
sward  keeps  up  a  fermentation  in  the  soil  nearly  equal  to  that  which 
is  produced  by  repeated  ploughings.  This  remark,  however,  more 
properly  applies  to  rich  mellow  soils;  those  that  are  naturally  stiff  or 
bard,  generally  will  not  sufficiently  ferment  to  bear  a  good  crop  by 
the  mere  rotting  of  the  sward. 

A  clover  sward,  that  has  been  mowed  and  well  turned  over,  makes 
a  very  fine  lay  for  wheat,  where  the  soil  is  not  too  stiff  or  hard;  but 
where  the  clover  has  been  fed  off,  it  is  not  considered  quite  so  good ; 
as  in  that  case  the  ground  becomes  harder  by  the  treading  of  the  cat- 
tle. Much,  however,  in  that  case,  depends  on  the  natural  mellow- 
ness of  the  soil. 

Clover  forms  but  a  crumbly  s^vard  ;  Timothy  is  stjffer;  but  the 
English  blue-grass,  (poa,)  forms  one  of  (he  strongest.  This,  where  it 
is  very  strong,  and  the  soil  full  of  vegetable  matter,  may  be  cut  and 
used  as  turf. 

Strong  swards  usually  accumulate  along  the  sides  of  fences,  anii 
where  cattle  much  resort,  which  may  be  used  to  sulvautage  is 
composts. 

Sec  article  Manures. 

When  the  sward  of  mowing  ground  binds  too  much,  it  is  usually 
most  advisable  to  break  it  up  and  till  the  ground.  If  this  be  not  done 
scarifying,  and  compost  manures  are  to  be  resorted  to.  The  binding 
of  the  a^varU  in  mowing,  or  in  pasture  grounds,  is  principally  the  effect 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  SM 

«f  close  feeding.     Let  a  sufficiency  of  fog,  or  after-grass,  be  left  on 
such  lands,  and  they  will  not  be  apt  to  Wnd. 

Generally  speaking,  there  is  no  method  so  easy,  and  cheap,  of 
covering  dry  soils,  which  are  poor  or  exhausted,  with  a  fresh  green 
sward,  as  with  the  use  of  gypsum ;  and  this  should  always  be  done  be- 
fore such  grounds  are  broken  up ;  as  in  that  case,  double,  or  per- 
haps, treble  the  crop  may  be  expected  from  them  that  they  will  yield 
if  broken  up  with  a  light,  poor  sward  on  them.  Let  the  gypsum  be 
sown  on  such  lands  *arly  in  the  spring,  and  by  the  ftrst  of  the  follow- 
ing July  they  will  be  covered  with  a  fine  sward  of  white  clover;  and 
when  land  is  well  covered  with  this  grass,  it  is  in  good  condition, 
with  the  aid  of  good  tillage,  to  bear  a  plentiful  crop. 

SWARTH-RAKE.  This  is  a  rake  about  two  yards  long,  with  iron 
teeth,  and  a  bearer  in  the  middle  ;  to  which  a  man  fixes  himself  with 
a  belt,  and  when  he  has  gathered  as  much  as  his  rake  will  hold,  he 
raises  it  and  begias  again, — Complete  Farmer. 

For  another  kind  of  rake,  see  article  Hav-Makinc, 

SAVINE.  "  The  Cattle  Society  of  Pennsylvania,'''  recommend  cross- 
ing the  Guinea  breed oi  hogs  with  the  best  kinds  of  our  common  swine, 
which,  they  say,  forms  a  breed  the  most  profitable  of  any. 

The  Chinese  breed  are  very  good.  The  large  long  bodied  hogs 
with  long  ears,  leaning  forward,  are  most  profitable  to  fatten  the 
second  year. 

Particular  pains  should  be  taken  to  select  and  improve  the  breed  of 
hogs,  as  some  kinds  are  much  more  profitable  for  raising  than  others. 
After  a  projjer  improvement  of  the  breed,  the  next  point  is  to  select 
the  finest  for  breeding  sows,  and  for  boars. 

The  marks  of  a  good  hog  are,  a  moderate  length,  ia  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  body  ;  the  head  and  cheek  plum  and  full ;  neck  thick 
and  short;  quarters  full;  carcase  thick  and  full;  hair  fine  and  thin; 
with  a  symmetry  adapted  to  the  respective  breed  to  which  he  belongs. 
Above  all,  it  is  essential,  that  he  be  of  a  kindly  disposition  to  fat- 
ten early. 

The  sow  will  bring  forth  a  stronger  and  better  litter,  if  she  be  kept 
till  she  is  a  year  old  before  she  goes  to  the  boar;  and  he  should  be  kept 
till  that  age  before  he  is  put  to  sows.  He  should  be  kept  in  good  con- 
dition for  the  purpose,  and  as  the  author  of  "  The  Complete  Grazier''' 
€ays,  should  not  serve  more  than  ten  sows  in  a  year.  The  sows 
should  also  be  kept  in  good  condition,  but  not  too  fat ;  as  in  that  case 
they  will  not  produce  an  abundant  litter  of  pigs.  As  they  will  usually 


252  FARiNIER'S  ASSISTANT. 

pig  twice  a  year,  they  should  be  put  to  the  boar  at  such  times  as  wil} 
brinp:  forward  one  litter  in  April  auil  another  earl)  in  September.  To 
cause  them  to  go  to  the  boar,  it  they  mifS  the  right  season,  give  them 
some  parched  oats  in  their  wash,  or  the  small  end  of  a  runnet-bag.  If 
well  kept,  ho^vever,  they  will  seldom  require  any  stimulus  to  coition 
at  the  proper  times.  Those  are  reckoned  the  best  breeders  which 
have  about  ten  or  twelve  paps.  They  should  be  kept  clean  and  well 
littered,  but  should  not  have  too  much  litter  at  the  time  of  pigging, 
lest  they  overlay  their  pigs  in  it.  At  the  end  of  a  week  or  ten  days» 
they  should  be  let  out  of  their  sties  into  their  yartl,  for  three  or  four 
hours  each  day.  Where  several  sows  are  farrowing,  about  the  same 
time,  they  must  be  kept  in  separate  apartmeuts  in  the  sty,  lest  they 
devour  the  pigs  of  each  other.  Young  sows  will  sometimes  eat  their 
own  offspring,  which  may  be  prevented  by  washing  the  backs  of  the 
pigs  in  an  infusion  of  aloes;  and,  for  this  purpose,  the  sows  must  1)6 
•watched  when  bringing  forth.  It  is  said,  that  supplying  them  with 
plenty  of  water  at  this  time  will  prevent  any  mischief  taking  place  of 
this  kind. 

The  sucking  pigs  intended  for  market,  should  be  killed  at  the  end 
of  about  three  weeks.  The  finest  ones  should  be  saved.  By  this 
time  the  rest  will  be  able  to  follow  the  sows,  when  the  males  may  be 
castrated,  and  at  the  end  of  another  week  the  females  may  be  spayed. 
This  latter  operation  will  greatly  promote  the  growth  and  fattening 
of  the  females.  The  castration  and  spaying  may  as  well,  however, 
be  deferred  till  the  age  of  six  weeks. 

Where  the  pigs  are  to  be  weaned,  Mr.  Young  says,  it  should  be  at 
the  age  of  two  months ;  and  they  should  be  kept  in  the  sty  by  them- 
selves and  suffered  to  run  into  a  yard.  They  should  be  ke|)t  clean, 
and  well  littered,  and  should  have  plenty  of  food,  which  may  be  boil- 
ed potatoes,  or  carrots,  for  a  fortnight,  when  raw  ones  will  (irove  good 
food.  They  should  also  be  baited  every  day  for  a  month  with  oats, 
and  after  this  may  have  a  thin  drink  of  pea,  or  buck-wheat  meal,  (In- 
dian-meal will  no  doubt  answer  as  well,)  l)oiled  in  water,  unless  there 
be  a  dairy  ;  in  which  case,  a  messof  milk  or  whey  may  be  substituted. 
Too  much  should  not,  however,  be  given  them  at  once,  as  Mr.  Deane 
says  it  is  known  sometimes  so  to  inflate  them  with  wind  as  to  kill 
them.  Mr.  Young  says,  their  being  kept  very  cleanly,  so  as  to  have 
fine  clean  coats,  is  as  essential  to  their  growth  as  good  feeding,  until 
the}'  are  turned  out  with  the  larger  hogs  into  the  clover  field,  which, 
after  the  age  of  three  months,  ^\ill  keep  them  very  well  during  the 
rest  of  the  growing  season. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  253 

It  has  been  uniformly  remarked,  that  though  these  animals  are  na- 
turally filthy,  if  left  to  themselves,  yet  the  cleaner  they  are  kept,  the 
belter  they  will  grow  and  fatten. 

Boiled  or  steamed  clover  hay  will  serve  to  keep  hogs  during  winter; 
but,  perhaps,  the  addition  of  some  potatoes  or  carrots  boiled  with 
the  hay,  would  be  a  very  proper  addition.  The  clover  should  be  cut 
a  little  sooner  than  usual,  and  should  be  well  cured,  and  have  about 
a  peck  of  salt  to  each  ton,  when  laid  down  in  the  mow.  For  boiling 
in  this  case,  as  well  as  for  boiling  roots,  and  for  other  purposes,  a 
wooden  vessel  full  of  holes  at  the  bottom  is  placed  over  the  boiler, 
which  holds  the  water,  and  which  is  heated  underneath;  being  set  in 
a  brick  stove  or  furnace  for  the  purpose.  The  steam  from  the  boiler 
rises  through  the  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  Avhich  holds  the  ar- 
ticles to  be  boiled,  or  steamed,  and  after  passing  through  them,  is  let 
off  at  the  top  ;  not  faster,  however,  than  is  necessar}',  being  partly 
confined  by  a  lid.  If  the  hay,  or  other  articles,  are  to  be  boiled  in 
water,  the  steam  is  conducted  by  a  tube  into  the  bottom  of  a^essel 
holding  the  water,  into  which  the  articles  are  put.  The  steam-boiler 
is  a  very  essential  article  in  the  rearing  of  swine  and  for  other  pur- 
poses, and  no  good  farmer  should  be  without  it. 

The  sows  may  be  allowed  to  breed  till  they  are  sis  years  old,  and 
the  boar  until  he  is  five.  After  this  the  former  is  to  be  spayed  and 
put  up  to  fatten,  and  the  latter  is  to  be  castrated,  as  being  no  longer 
fit  for  use.     His  flesh  will  make  good  bacon  when  fatted. 

In  preference  to  feeding  swine  on  clover  in  the  field,  during  sum- 
mer, Mr.  Young  prefers  soiling  them  in  a  yard  for  the  purpose;  and  ia 
this  case  he  makes  use  of  Lucerne,  cichorj,  clover,  tares,  and  other 
green  food,  cut  and  carried  in  for  feeding  them.  The  water  crow- 
foot (rununculus  aquaiilis,)  is  also  highlj^  recommended  for  this  pur- 
pose. This  method,  however,  though  it  may  save  some  ground  in 
pasture,  and  may  afford  the  means  of  making  considerable  manure, 
does  not  seem  so  apparently  beneficial  as  the  practice  of  soiling  some 
Other  cattle.  Mention  is  made  by  Mr.  Young,  of  his  having  fed  sixty- 
four  hogs,  great  and  small,  on  two  acres  of  clover  alone,  during  one 
season,  and  that  they  all  grew  very  well.  The  pasture  in  which  they 
are  kept  should  have  a  supply  of  water.  Before  they  are  turned  into 
the  pasture,  and  while  they  are  young,  let  the  top  of  the  gristle  of  the 
nose  be  pared  off  with  a  sharp  knife,  which  will  ever  afterwards  pre- 
vent their  rpoting  up  the  sward.  It  answers  the  same  purpose  as  ring- 
ing them. 


254  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Perhaps  the  best  method  of  keeping  swine  duriDg  summer  is  to  have 
two  small  enclosures ;  the  one  to  be  kept  for  feeding  them,  while  the 
other  is  under  tillage  for  a  fresh  supply  of  clover,  or  other  good  grass, 
^hen  that  in  the  first  has  failed.  And  as  they  are  fond  of  sweet  ap- 
ples, which  not  only  serve  for  food,  but  will  even  help  to  fatten  them, 
let  the  enclosures  be  planted  with  a  few  trees  of  these,  of  the  best 
yearly  bearers,  selected  for  the  purpose ;  some  being  early  ripe  and 
some  later;  in  order  that  a  constant  supply  may  be  afforded  during 
the  season.  The  trees  should,  however,  not  stand  so  closely  as  ma- 
terially to  injure  the  groimd  for  cultivation.  Peach-trees  may  also  be 
advantageously  used  for  the  same  purpose  till  the  apple-trees  have 
sufficiently  grown. 

Boiled  clover  has  been  mentioned  as  afifording  a  good  food  fer  hogs 
during  winter.  In  Great-Britain  boiled  carrots,  potatoes,  &c.  are 
mostly  used  for  the  purpose  by  those  who  go  largely  into  the  raising 
of  swine ;  but  here  the  greater  severity  of  our  winters  is  not  so  favor- 
able tbr  this  practice;  the  farmer  here,  must,  therefore,  consume  most 
of  his  stock  of  roots  before  the  frosts  set  in,  and  must  principally  rely 
on  his  boiled  clover,  with  some  small  addition  of  roots  preserved  from 
(he  frosts,  for  food  during  the  winter  season.  No  doubt  a  little  Indian 
meal  sprinkled  among  the  hay,  and  boiled  with  it,  will  be  an  excellent 
addition. 

Hogs  for  fatting  should  be  ia  a  healthy  state ;  and  to  increase  their 
appetite  let  a  dose  or  two  of  sulphur  be  given  them  in  their  food. 
Change  of  food  is  also  good  to  increase  their  appetite;  but  laxative 
food  should  be  avoided,  as  they  are  seldom  costive,    ^'hen  found  so, 
a  little  rye  will  help  them.     Probably  changes  of  boiled  roots,  and  of 
meal  and  water  at  intervals,  would  be  found  best.     Mr.  Young  says, 
the  best  method  of  feeding  all  kinds  of  grain  to  hogs,  is  to  grind  it  to 
xueal,  and  mix  it  w  ith  water,  in  cisterns  made  for  the  purpose,  in  the 
proportion  of  five  bushels  of  meal  to  a  huadred  gallons  of  water;  the 
mass  to  be  well  stirred  several  limes  each  day,  until  it  has  fermented 
and  become  acid,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.     In  this  way  two  or 
Ihree  cisterns  must  be  kept  for  fermenting  io  succession ;  l)ut  he  says, 
the  profits  will  amply  pay  the  expense.     For  the  same  reason  the 
grains  of  distilleries,  and  the  refuse  of  starch  factories  are  excellent 
for  fatting  swine.     Mention  is  made  of  one  of  the  latter  at  Lambeth* 
(Great -Britain.)  affording  sufficient   to  fatten  10,000  hogs  in  a  year. 
Pea-soup  is  also  accounted  excellent  for  fatting;  but  in  this  case  the 
expense  of  boiling  the  peas  is  incurred.    Boiled  Indian  corn  is  also 


FARMER^S  ASSISTANT.  25^ 

xery  good,  or  this  grain  may  be  soaked  so  as  to  answer  well,  though 
perhaps  it  is  better  ground  into  meal.  Indian  corn  of  a  former  year's 
growth  is  much  the  best. 

In  recommendation  of  peas,  together  with  a  mixture  of  barley  meal 
being  used  for  fatting,  the  author  of  "  The  Complete  Grasier"  asserts, 
that  the  pork  fatted  with  this  grain  will  rather  swell  in  boiling  and  have 
an  improved  flavor,  while  that  fatted  with  beans  will  shrink  much  in 
boiling,  will  loose  much  of  its  fat  and  be  of  inferior  taste.  The  cause 
of  meat  sometimes  shrinking  very  much,  and  loosing  much  of  its  oils 
in  cooking,  seems  not  to  be  well  understood  ;  though  the  knowledge 
necessary  for  preventing  it  would  be  highly  desirable.  Generally 
speaking,  it  is  believed,  that  the  more  fully  any  animal  is  fatted  the 
less  its  meat  will  shrink  and  part  with  its  oil  in  cooking. 

Whatever  method  of  fattening  swine  may  be  adopted,  it  is  essential 
that  they  be  kept  jvarmand  clean,  by  having  plenty  of  litter,  particu- 
larly when  the  weather  becomes  colder  and  by  keeping  the  sty  fre- 
quently cleaned ;  and,  that  they  should  have  as  much  solid  food  and 
drink  as  they  require.  Their  meals  should  also  be  regular,  and  as 
nearly  equi-distant  in  point  of  time  as  [xjssible. 

It  is  observed  by  the  author  of"  The  Complete  Graskr"  that  where 
many  hogs  are  put  up  together  to  fatten,  they  will  fall  away  at  first,  if 
ever  so  well  fed ;  which  he  attributes  to  the  noise  and  confusion  pro- 
duced among  them  by  this  new  state  of  keeping :  He  observes  too, 
that  in  such  cases  it  is  not  unfrequent  for  one  of  the  family  to  become 
30  much  the  object  of  hatred  to  the  rest,  as  eventually  to  be  killed  by 
them;  and  from  all  this  he  infers,  that  it  is  much  the  better  way  to- 
have  them  in  a  number  of  small  companies,  detached  from  each  other, 
so  that  the  noise  and  bustle  will  be  less,  and  in  order  that  they  may- 
more  unmolestedly  enjoy  that  repose  which  is  most  suitable  to  their 
drowsy  faculties.  For  this  purpose  the  sty  should  have  a  number  of 
distinct  apartments,  separated  by  close  partitions  from  each  other,  andt 
where  the  inmates  of  each  can  come  Ibrward  separately  to  the  general 
feeding  trough,  and  retire  separately  again  to  rest. 

Where  a  hog  has  surfeited  itself  by  eating  too  much,  the  same  au- 
thor recommends  giving  it  half  an  ounce  of  flour  of  sulphur  in  some 
wash,  once  or  twice  a  day,  for  two  or  three  days;  by  which  time  its 
appetite  will  be  restored.  Mr.  Deane  advises,  that  posts  be  set  up  in 
the  sty  for  them  to  rub  against,  as  they  are  usually  much  inclined  to 
rub  themselves. 


^56  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

The  business  of  fatting  hogs  shouki  be  begun  so  early  in  the  fall 
as  to  be  com;ileted  before  the  cold  weather  sets  in  ;  as  after  thi;  they 
vill  fatten  very  slowly.  Let  it  be  commenced  by  the  mitUlle  oi  Sep- 
tember, and  then  the  killing  may  commence  about  the  middle  of  No- 
vember. 

Sw  ine  are  liable  to  some  diseases,  which  are  here  noticed,  w  ith  the 
best  remedies  for  them. 

Mcns,hs. — This  disorder  is  mostly  in  the  throat,  which  is  filled  with 
small  pustules,  and  sometimes  these  a|>|iear  on  the  outside  of  the  neck. 
The  animal  affected  looks  languid,  with  red  eyes,  and  looses  flesh. 
Cure. — Give  him  small  quantities  of  levigated  crude  antimony  in 
his  food. 

The  manse,  like  the  scab  in  sheep,  is  a  cutaneous  irruption  of  the 
skin,  occasioned  by  want  of  cleanliness  in  the  hogsty.  It  is  known  by 
the  violent  rubbing  of  the  animal  till  he  tear?  the  pustules,  and  thus 
produces  scabs.  The  cure,  as  directed  by  Dr.  Norford,  is  first  to 
wash  the  animal  well  with  strong  soajHsuds;  then  anoint  him  with  an 
ointment  formed  of  an  ounce  of  flour  of  sulphut  ;  two  drachms  of  fresh 
pulverized  hellilwre ;  three  ounces  of  hogslard  ;  and  half  an  ounce  of 
the  water  of  k  ili.  This  is  to  be  rubbed  in  at  one  time,  and  is  suffi- 
cient for  a  hog  weighing  an  hundred.  I:  [iroperly  applied,  no  repeti- 
tion will  be  necessary,  if  the  hog  be  afterwards  kept  clean.  Where' 
he  h.ts  a  slight  cough,  he  directs  doses  of  antimony,  from  half  an  ounce 
to  an  ounce  and  a  half,  accordins  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  to  be  fine- 
ly pulverized  and  mixed  with  his  food  for  ten  days  or  a  Ibrtnight. 
But  where  from  long  neglect,  the  neck,  ears,  and  other  parts  necorae 
ulcerated,  they  should  be  anointed  every  third  or  fourth  <lay  with  an 
ointment  made  of  equal  parts  of  tar  and  mutton  suet,  melted  together, 
till  the  cure  is  completed. 

Thi  murrain,  or  lepro?y  in  swine,  is  known  by  the  shortness  and 
heat  of  the  breath,  hanging  down  of  the  head,  staggering,  and  secre- 
tions from  the  eyes.  It  is  said  to  be  caused  by  hot  seasons,  when  the 
blo(Kl  becomes  inGamed. 

Remedy. — Boil  a  handful  of  nettles  in  a  gallon  of  small  beer ;  add 
half  a  pound  of  flour  of  sulphur,  a  quarter  of  a  jiound  of  anniseeds,  pul- 
verized ;  three  ounces  of  liquorice  and  a  quarter  of  a  pound  ol  ele- 
campane, and  give  this  mixture  in  milk  at  six  doses. 

Tlie  s^anrut  is  an  inflammation  of  the  udder,  by  l>ein£  filled  with 
coagulated  milk.     It  chiefly  happens  where  sows  are  too  fat  at  litter- 


FARIMER'S  ASSISTANT.  257 

ing;  and  where  they  are  thus  affected  the  pigs  will  not  suck.  In  slight 
cases  the  udder  may  be  bathed  with  camphorated  wine;  but  the  milk 
must  be  squeezed  out  by  hand,  if  possible.  If  relief  cannot  thus  be 
given,  it  is  liest  to  kill  the  animal. 

Dri/  cous^h  and  wasting  of  the  flesh,  is  best  remedied  by  a  dry  warm 
sty,  with  a  regular  su|)ply  of  tboil  that  is  calculated  to  keep  them  cool, 
and  to  allay  the  irritation  of  the  lungs. 

Fever,  or  rising  of  the  ligfds,  seems  to  be  caused  by  over  feeding, 
and  may  be  removed  by  doses  of  sulphur  and  oil 

Like  many  other  employments,  that  of  rearing  and  fatting  swine 
will  be  found  more  profitable  the  more  largely  and  spiritedly  it  is  en- 
tered into;  and  in  order  to  this  the  farmer  must  have  hishogsty  of  an 
adequate  construction  ;  his  pastures  adjoining;  his  steam-boiler ;  his 
oloverhay ;  together  with  a  due  supply  of  roots  and  grain  for  feeding 
and  fatting.  The  business  is  most  ailvantageous  when  connected  with 
a  proportionate  dairy ;  but  by  following  the  plan  above  laid  dowa 
may  answer  very  well  without. 

tiYCA.AIORE;  (Acer.)  This  tree  is  commonly  called  maple. 
There  are  but  three  kinds  in  this  country,  the  white-maple,  the  red- 
maple,  and  the  rock  or  sugar-maple.  The  latter  kind  is  excellent  for 
fuel,  even  when  green,  but  it  is  most  valuable  lor  its  juice  in  making 
sugar,  and  of  this  kind  only  something  shall  be  said. 

Where  the  farmer  wishes  to  save  his  sugar-maple  trees,  he  ought 
not  to  tap  them  in  the  common  way,  but  instead  of  this,  bore  a  hole 
two  or  three  inches  into  the  tree,  out  of  which  the  sap  can  be  drawn, 
and  let  it  be  plugged  up  after  the  sap  has  done  running.  The  me- 
thod of  making  the  sugar  is  too  well  known  to  need  any  minute  de- 
scription. It  would  be  often  well,  however,  if  those  who  make  this 
sugar,  were  to  observe  more  cleanliness  in  regard  to  the  vessels  in 
which  the  sap  is  gathered.  Old  troughs  which  have  lain  for  years 
exposed  to  the  weather,  are  not  very  proper  receptacles  for  the  sap, 
if  regard  be  had  to  the  cleanliness  of  the  sugar,  and  of  course  to  its 
value.  Some  make  use  of  vessels  made  in  the  form  of  pails,  which 
they  keep  for  the  purpose,  and  this  is  certainly  at  least  more  cleanly. 
The  vessels  can  be  laid  up  ever>-  year,  after  the  lime  of  using  them  is 
past,  and  be  preserved  many  years. 

Where  farmers  are  clearing  uff  pasture  lands  which  abound  with, 
sugar  maple,  it  would  be  well  to  preserve  these  trees,  as  they  do  no  in- 
jury to  the  pasture;  but  the  difijcuity  is,  that  as  soon  as  they  become 
more  exposed  to  the  winds  thev  are  blown  down.     But  let  the  farmer 

33 


258  FARINIER^S  ASSISTANT. 

preserve  all  the  small  maples  which  he  finds  in  such  grouutU,  and  in- 
a  few  _vears  these  will  j^row  up  with  sufficient  strensth  of  root  to  \\ith- 
staiid  tiie  winds,  and  lieoojne  an  arlicle  of  profit  ;ni(l  ornamental  to  hi?^ 
farm*  They  may  also  be  very  easily  du?  up  in  the  woodlands,  and 
transplanted  into  such  pasture?.  This  is  a  piece  of  economy  which 
the  farmer  would  do  well  to  oljserve,  if  he  wishes  his  farm  to  yield 
due  supplies  of  sugar  when  that  article  shall  have  become  inore  scarce. 
Twenty  tree^  to  an  acre  Avoiild  do  little  or  no  injury  to  the  pasture  : 
and  ten  acre?  of  such  a  ma;)!e  orchard  would  in  a  few  years  yield  no 
mconsideralile  quantity  of  sugar.  By  horing  the  trees  as  above  di- 
rected, no  essential  injury  is  done  to  them,  so  that  they  might  be  in- 
creasing in  growti;  or  half  a  cenuiry,  or  perhaps  double  that  length- 
of  time. 

The  trees  may  he  propagated  by  cutliogs  or  by  the  seeds.. 


FAttiVIEa'S  ASSISTANT.  259 


T. 


TAIL-SICKNESS.     S'£«  article  Neat  Cattle, 

TALL  OAT-GRASS.     Sec  article  Grasses. 

TAI  L  MEADOW  OATS.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Muhlenburg,  of  Lan- 
caster, Pennsylvania,  speaking  of  this  grass,  in  1793,  says,  that  he 
lound  it  the  earliest,  latest,  and  best  for  green  fodder  and  hay,  which 
he  had  tried.  It  blossoms  in  the  midtile  of  May  and  the  seed  ripens 
about  a  month  after.  It  grows  hest  in  a  clover  soil,  and  the  leaves 
are  from  two  to  four  feet  high  before  it  blossoms-  In  the  blossom  the 
stalk  rises  from  five  to  seven  feet. 

He  says  it  should  be  cut  in  the  blossom,  about  the  beginning  of 
June.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in  the  spring  or  fall,  and  should  be 
lightly  harrowed  or  brushed  in.  It  miy  be  mixed  with  clover  to  ad- 
vantage. He  observes,  howover,  that  horses  do  not  like  it  green,  but 
oat  it  when  made  into  hay. 

No  doubt  this  is  a  very  good  grass,  but  it  is  inferior  in  quality  to 
Lucerne. 

TEAMS-  Our  teams  are  of  three  kinds ;  teams  of  horses,  of  oxen, 
and  of  oxen  and  horses  together.  In  Spain  and  Italy  they  have 
teams  of  cows,  and  sometimes  of  cows  and  bulls  together.  In  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe  the  rein-deer  has  been  subjected  to  the  har- 
ness, and  3Ir.  Livingston  is  of  opinion  that  the  elk  and  the  moose 
might  also  be  brought  under  the  like  subjection  to  advantage  in  this 
country-. 

The  advantages  of  horses  in  teams  are  their  superior  docility  and 
quickness  of  motion ;  and  their  disadvantages  are  their  greater  ex- 
jjense  iu  raising  and  keeping,  and  their  being  of  no  value  after  their 
time  of  service  is  over.  On  the  contrary,  the  advantages  of  oxen  are 
iheir  cheapness  in  raisuig  and  keeping,  and  their  value  for  beef  after 
their  proper  time  of  service  has  expired;  and  their  disadvantages  are 
tlieir  slowness  of  motion  and  their  greater  untracta'.Ieuess.  Probably 
they  might  be  rendered  more  tractable  if  some  effectual  method  were 


!8eO  PARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

devised  for  driTins;  them  with  line?;  in  that  ca=e  the  exfra  expeuec  of 
a  hand  to  drive  them  in  ploughing  would  be  saved,  and  the  ploughing 
better  performed. 

Say  that  a  goo<l  span  of  farming  horses  are  worth,  at  four  years  old, 
one  hundred  dollars  :  At  fourteen  years  from  that  time  they  are  worth 
little  or  nothing;  of  course,  another  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars,  must 
at  the  expiration  of  that  time  be  expended  iti  the  purchase  of  a  new 
span.  This  sum  to  be  jtaid  at  the  end  of  fourteen  years  is  about  equal 
to  fifty  dollars  paid  down.  In  order,  therefore,  to  keep  good  the  span, 
a  capital  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  is  necessary  ;  which  is 
equal  to  an  expenditure  of  ten  dollars  and  fifty  cents  a  year.  A  yoke 
of  oxen  at  four  years  old,  are  worth,  say,  sixty  dollars;  and  allowing 
thtm  not  to  depreciate  in  value  till  turned  off  for  fatting,  they  require 
an  expenditure  of  four  dollars  and  twenty  cents  a  year,  as  the  interest 
of  the  capital  laid  out  for  them.  Say  that  the  horses  will  cost  fifteen 
dollars  a  year  more  than  the  oxen  to  keep  them,  and  provide  harness 
for  them  :  Say  also,  that  they  do  an  hundred  day's  work  in  a  year,  and 
that  the  oxen,  working  a  quarter  slower,  require  one  hundred  and 
thirty-three  davs  to  perform  the  same  lalior:  Then  if  one  hand  only 
is  employed  with  the  oxen,  his  wages  and  board  during  the  extra 
thirty-three  days,  at  fifty  cents  per  day,  would  still  leave  a  balance  in 
favor  of  the  oxen  of  four  dollars  and  eiehty  cents  for  the  year's  work; 
but  if  they  should  require  a  boy  to  drive,  while  another  hand  holds 
the  plough,  then  the  balance  would  be  very  considerably  in  favor  of 
the  horses. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  believed,  that  oxen  may  be  found  the  most  pro- 
fitable team  in  some  situations,  particularly  in  new  countries,  and  in 
roueh  lands;  and  in  other  situations  again,  such  as  in  smooth  lands, 
and  where  the  best  cultivation  is  required,  probably,  horses  ought,  for 
most  uses,  to  have  the  preference. 

Lord  Kaims,  however,  expresses  an  0[)inion  very  different  from  this. 
He  says  that  oxen  are  preferable  for  husban<lry  in  many  respects. 
They  are  cheaper  than  horses,  as  it  regards  their  food;  the  method  of 
keeping  them  ;  the  superiority  of  their  duns;  their  being  subject  to 
fewer  diseases  ;  and  their  suffering  no  deterioration  liy  age.  He  says, 
that  a  couple  of  oxen  in  a  ploueh  require  not  a  driver  more  than  a 
couple  of  horses  ;  that  the  Dutch  at  the  Ca[»e  of  Good  Hope  plough 
with  oxen,  without  a  driver,  and  exercise  them  early  to  a  quick  pHce, 
so  Hsto  equal  horses  both  i-  the  plough  and  in  the  WMcgon ;  that  the 
people  of  Malabar  use  no  other  animal  for  the  plough,  nor  for  bur 


FARMER'S  A5-81STANT.  261 

vlens;  and  lliat  about  PoiuHcherrjr  no  beasts  ol'  burden  are  to  be 
seen  but  oxen.  He  further  justly  remarlis,  that  if  oxen  were  more 
generally  used,  that  the  articles  of  beef,  candles,  and  leather,  three 
essential  necessaries  of  life,  would  become  much  cheaper. 

The  compiler  of  '•  The  Conipkte  Grasier"  also  says,  that  Messrs. 
Culleys,  of  Northuraherland,  Great-Britain,  employ  one  hundred  and 
fifty  oxen  in  the  draft ;  that  they  are  used  singly  in  carts,  and  two  in 
a  j)lough  with  cords,  or  lines,  without  a  driver.  He  however  observes, 
that  they  do  not  perform  their  work  with  the  same  dispatch  as  horses. 
He  further  observes,  that  "  in  the  North  of  England,  it  is  not  an  un- 
frequent  occurrence  to  to  see  a  light  ox  saddled,  and  briskly  trotting 
along  the  road,  obedient  to  his  rider's  voice;"  and  that  "  Sussex  oxen 
have  beaten  horses  at  the  plough  in  the  deepest  clay."  He  recom- 
mends the  Hertfordshire  and  Devonshire  oxen  as  being  the  most 
speedy. 

See  the  description  of  the  Devonshire  breed  of  oxen  in  article 
"Neat  Cattle. 

The  slowness  of  oxen  is  partly  natural,  and  partly  acquired  by- 
overloading  them.  This,  therefore,  should  be  avoided.  Mhen  their 
work  is  easy  they  may  be  (juickentd  without  hurting  iLeni,  and  their 
contracting  a  habit  of  moving  so  slowlj  ,  as  some  do,  may  be  thus  pre- 
vented. They  always  become  sloAver  as  they  grow  older,  and  for 
that  reason  they  never  should  be  kept  longer  than  such  age  as  they 
will  still  make  the  best  beef,  which  is  probably  about  the  age  of  seren 
or  eight  years. 

In  a  team  of  part  oxen  and  part  horses,  either  the  gait  of  the  oxen 
must  become  quickened,  or  that  of  the  horses  made  slower;  imt,  per- 
haps, a  little  of  each  would  be  the  consequence,  and  in  this  way  the 
©xen  would  be  the  better,  though  probably  at  the  expense  of  injuring 
th»^  horses  for  almost  every  kind  of  work,  when  they  are  worked  by 
th<Mnselves. 

i\lr.  Livingston  makes  mention  of  a  contrivance  he  had  seen  in 
Italy,  that  was  attached  to  the  noses  of  the  oxen,  which  v. as  princi- 
pally used  for  governing  them;  and  by  means  of  it  he  thinks  he  l:ad 
seen  them  drove  with  lines.  "  It  consists,"  says  he,  "  of  two  flat 
pieces  of  iron  that  turned  at  the  lower  ends,  an<I  funned  a  forceps, 
these  bars  shut  over,  and  when  closed,  the  ends  gently  |)ressed  upon 
the  c- Ttilage  of  the  nose  of  the  ox.  They  were  kept  cltse  ly  I  eing 
tigiitly  bound  at  the  top,  and  strapped  against  the  forehead  ol  the 
oxen." 


262  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

•'  If  we  may  argue  the  utility  of  a  practice  from  its  extent,  says 
Mr.  Livingston,  "  we  must  prefer  drawing  by  the  horus  to  any  other 
mode;  nine  tenths  of  Europe  make  their  cattle  draw  in  this  way,  and 
from  what  1  have  seen  of  their  performance,  1  am  persuaded  that  it  is 
to  be  preferred  to  the  yoke.  A  bull's  strength  appears  to  be  placed 
in  his  neck,  and  in  drawing  in  this  way  the  whole  of  it  is  exerted ;  bis 
motion  is  not  impeded,  or  his  skin  chafed  as  it  is  by  the  yoke." 

"  In  the  mountains  of  Savoy,'  says  .Mr.  Livinsston,  "  I  saw  many 
cattle,  chiefly  cows,  drawing  by  the  horns,  not  in  carts  but  in  wag- 
gons. How  far  the  working  of  cows  is  advantageous,  deserves  con- 
sideration. It  is  observable,  however,  thnt  our  cows  are  in  general 
much  smaller  than  those  usually  worked  in  Europe.' 

"  Yokes,"  he  observes,  "  are  used  in  some  parts  of  Ital}',  but  they 
differ  from  ours.  Instead  of  bows,  there  are  four  flat  pieces  of  wood, 
which  hang  from  each  side  of  the  yoke,  and  are  about  ten  inches  long, 
and  hollowed  so  as  to  fit  the  sides  of  the  neck  :  They  are  so  thick  as 
to  admit  a  rope  or  chain  to  jtass  through  them,  b}-  which  thej-  are  fix- 
ed to  the  yoke,  and  each  pair  of  them  are  united  by  a  chain,  or  rope, 
under  the  oxen's  neck.  You  will  see  that  the  draft  b  in  this  case  by 
the  top  of  the  shoulders  only,  and  1  believe  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  our 
bows  on  that  account,  because  the  bow  by  pressing  the  shoulder 
blade  impedes  the  motion  of  the  animal.'  For  holding  back,  whe- 
ther they  draw  by  these  yokes  or  by  the  horns,  he  says,  "  the  end  of 
the  pole  projects  considerabl}^  beyond  the  heads  of  the  cattle,  and 
turns  up  very  much ;  to  this  is  Hxed  a  leather  strap  that  socs  round  the 
horns  of  the  oxen,  so  that  they  keep  back  the  weight  by  their  horn?, 
and  with  much  more  ease  than  ours  do  by  twisting  their  necks." 

In  England  they  arc  worked  in  a  harness,  which,  were  it  not  more 
expensive,  and  more  troublesome,  ought  to  be  preferred  to  the  me- 
thod practised  here. 

I  think  it  hishly  probable,  that  the  great  pressure  of  the  bows  of  our 
yokes  against  the  shoulders  of  the  oxen,  and  the  enormous  weight 
they  are  often  injudiciously  made  to  bear  on  their  necks,  when  in 
carts,  are  the  principal  causes  of  our  oxen  moving  slower  tho  long- 
er they  are  used. 

In  all  teams,  where  two  animals  drav/  against  each  other,  the  weak- 
er one  should  have  the  longer  end  of  the  ox-l>ow,  or  whiffle-tree, 
by  which  they  draw,  in  order  that  when  drawing  they  may  pull 
evenly. 

If  oxen  learn  to  crowd  each  other,  use  them  to  a  shorter  bow;  if 
hey  draw  apart,  use  them  to  a  longer  one. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  263 

THISTLE;  (Carduus.)  The  common  kind  of  these  are  easily- 
kept  out  of  the  fields,  by  plucking  them  out  while  young,  or  mowing 
them  before  they  go  to  seed.  But  there  is  a  species  of  thistle  gaining 
ground  in  the  northern  parts  of  this  state,  called  Canada  thistle,  being 
imported  from  Canada,  which  threatens  to  become  a  serious  evil  to 
t)ur  soil. 

See  article  Weeds. 
Sec  also,  article  Puller's  Thistle. 

THORN.     The  English  thorn  being  liable  to  be  killed  by  the 
severity  of  our  winters,  it  becomes  advisable  to  make  use  of  that 
•which  is  natural  to  our  climate  for  making  hedges. 
See  article  Hedges. 

It  has,  however,  been  found  difficult  to  make  the  seeds  of  our  owa 
thorn  to  germinate ;  but  it  is  believed  that  this  may  be  easily  accom- 
plished, if  the  means  be  ap^^lied  wliieh  have  been  recommended  in  a 
preceding  article. 

S'cc  Germination  op  Plants. 

After  the  seeds  have  been  cleaned,  and  treated  as  directed  in  the 
above  article,  let  them  be  sown  in  the  fall,  in  beds  of  warm  rich  mould 
having  a  southern  exposure,  at  the  depth  of  little  more  than  two  inches. 
When  they  come  up  let  them  be  transplanted  into  other  beds,  and 
kept  clear  of  weeds  till  they  are  fit  to  set  out  in  the  hedge,  whick 
should  be  at  the  height  of  two  feet. 

Probably  it  may  be  found,  that  immersing  the  seeds  abont  half  a 
minute  in  hot  water,  holding  a  solution  of  saltpetre,  would  be  found 
sufficient  to  make  them  germinate.  Hot  water  and  saltpetre,  have 
each  been  found  to  quicken  germination. 

THRESHING.  This,  when  performed  with  fiails,  is  but  slow 
work.  Threshing  with  horses  is  considerably  more  expeditious. 
Some  of  the  German  farmers  of  this  county  and  its  vicinity,  thresh 
with  a  roller,  which  turns  on  a  centre  at  one  end,  which  is  small 
and  confined  to  the  floor,  at  that  end,  by  an  iron  pivot  on  which  it 
turns,  and  the  other  end  is  large  in  proportion  to  the  increase  6f 
the  circle  which  it  makes.  It  is  draw  n  by  a  horse,  and  is  usually 
of  the  length  of  about  twelve  feet.  It  is  set  full  of  little  square 
pieces  of  wooden  teeth,  leaning  outwards,  with  the  ends  cut  off  slant- 
ing, agreeably  to  the  superfice  of  the  roller.  AVith  this  a  man  and 
horse  will  thresh  out  about  twelve  bushels  of  wheat  in  a  day- 

In  Virginia,  where  the  greatest  crops  of  wheat  are  raised,  they 
o-enerally  thresh  them  out  in  the  fields,  and  for  this  some  use  patent 


261  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

threshing  machines,  and  some  make  smooth  circular  earthen  (loors 
of  eighty  leet  diameter,  or  more;  on  this  the  wheat  is  set  with  the 
heads  upwards,  and  then  waggons  and  horses  are  drove  round  on 
it  till  that  floor  is  threshed;  then  more  is  constantly  thrown  on, 
till  one  hundred  bushels,  or  more,  are  threshed  out,  when  tluy  se- 
parate the  wheat  from  the  straw,  by  forking  it  up,  and  proceed  to 
clean  the  wheat,  and  then  jjroceed  as  before,  till  the  business  is 
completed.  Threshing  machines  are,  however,  the  best ;  and  the 
expense  of  them  is  but  a  trifle  for  those  who  raise  large  crops  of 
wheat  and  other  grain. 

TILLAGE.  A  great  part  of  this  work  relates  to  tillage,  or  the 
culture  of  land  ;  the  reader  must  therefore  refer  to  the  various  articles 
which  treat  of  this  8ul»ject  in  all  its  branches.  Any  uncommon  mode 
of  culture,  however,  or  any  miscellaneous  observations  relating  to  the 
subject,  will  naturally  form  the  substance  of  this  article. 

Under  the  article,  Soiling  of  Cattle,  is  laid  down  a  method  of 
tilling  a  small  piece  of  land,  wherever  such  may  be  found  suitable  for 
the  purpose,  which  the  writer  of  this  work  has  ventured  to  recom- 
mend. The  mode  of  culture  there  recommended  is  uncommon;  the 
land  is  divided  into  narrow  strips,  and  these  are  to  be  ploughed  but 
one  way.  Further,  therefore,  to  assist  in  convincing  the  most  bigottcd, 
that  there  is  nothing  extravagant  in  the  plau  of  cultivating  in  narrow 
strips,  and  plougliing  but  one  waj-^ ;  the  mode  of  cultivating  two  fields, 
which  is  practised  by  the  inhabitants  of  Market  Weighton,  in  Great- 
Britain,  as  published  in  the  "  Rusticnin  Musant:,''^  shall  be  here  no- 
ticed. 

These  pc'0[)!e  have  five  fields,  in  common,  for  culture  ;  three  of  a 
r.layey  soil,  and  two  w  hich  are  more  sandy.  The  latter  supply  them 
with  rye,  hay,  and  pasture  for  their  sheep,  «S;c. ;  and  are  tilled  in  the 
following  manner: — The  fields  are  raised  in  ridges,  which  are  four 
mowing  swarths  wide;  the  middle,  or  higlierpart  of  each  rid^e,  of  the 
Avidthof  two  svvarlhe,  is  cultivated  for  rye,  and  the  remainder  of  each, 
or  the  moister  parts,  alternately  for  mowing  and  pasture:  When  the 
rye  is  growing  the  grass  strips  arc  mowed ;  and  the  next  season,  when 
rye  strips  are  fallowed  for  another  crop  of  that  grain,  the  grass 
strips  aflbrd  pasture  for  their  sheep,  &;c. ;  the  dung  and  stale  of  the 
the  flock  serves  as  a  light  manuring  for  the  ground  every  fallowing 
year ;  and  this  serves  constantly  to  produce  strips  of  good  rye,  and 
mowing  ground  the  next  year.  It  would  seem  by  the  descriptiott 
given  of  these  grouuds,  that  the  soil  is  somewhat  wettish  though  sandy 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT*  265 

Here,  tben,  is  ground  tilled  ,to  advantage,  as  is  said,  in  very  narrow 
strips,  and  without  any  cross-plougbiug.  It  is  however  believed,  that 
such  fields  might  be  cultivated  to  much  more  advantage  on  the  soil- 
ing plan,  heretofore  recommended,  or  something  similar. 

In  tilling  lands,  it  is  essential  that  it  be  done  in  the  right  season; 
that  it  be  done  effectually ;  and  in  order  to  this,  it  is  of  the  first  import- 
ance to  have  the  implements  of  tillage  well  constructed,  and  kept  ia 
good  order. 

Again,  lands  should  always  be  applied  to  that  tillage  for  which  they 
-are  best  adapted  ;  or,  in  other  words,  in  which  they  will  constantly 
yield  the  greatest  clear  profit.  If,  therefore,  the  farmer  has  land^ 
which  are  only  fitted  for  grass,  let  him  not  work  against  wind  and  tide 
in  trying  to  raise  grain  on  them.  If  he  has  broken  hills,  and  decli- 
vities, they  will  generally  but  poorly  repay  the  unpleasant  labor  of 
cultivating  them  with  the  plough  and  the  hoe ;  rather  let  such  be  kept 
for  sheep-walks,  for  orchards,  for  raising  timber,  or  perhaps  for  the 
culture  of  the  vine,  as  they  may  be  found  best  adapted.  If  his  lands 
are  rocky  and  stony,  to  plough  and  hoe  them  is  a  difficult  uneasy  em» 
ployment ;  and  never  can  be  productive  of  much  profit,  till  the  im- 
pediments to  the  plough  and  the  hoe  are  removed.  If  they  are  too 
light  and  sandy,  they  may  nevertheless  be  made  to  yield  good  crops 
©f  tap-rooted  plants,  such  as  carrots  and  clover ;  or  of  such  as  ripea 
early,  as  rye  for  instance ;  or  that  bear  drought  well,  as  burnet,  sain- 
foin. Lucerne ;  or  of  such  trees  as  flourish  in  sandy  soils,  as  the  locust, 
Lombardy  poplar,  olive,  &ic.  If  the  lands  be  boggy,  when  well  drain- 
ed, they  will  be  found  very  profitable  for  hemp,  which  they  will  beae 
yearly,  with  the  aid  of  small  yearly  additions  of  manure;  but,  if  the 
lands  be  moderately  level,  smooth,  and  of  a  good  medium  soil,  that  is, 
such  as  is  equally  adapted  for  grain  and  for  grasses,  there  let  the 
farmer  pursue  the  culture  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  in  such  manner  as  he 
finds  will  afford  him  the  greatest  clear  profit;  and  in  doing  this,  it  is 
believed,  that  he  cannot  adopt  a  better  plan  than  that  recommended 
under  article  Soiling,  &c.  or  something  similar  to  it. 

The  expense  of  any  kind  of  tillage  never  should  be  regarded  where 
clear  profits  proportionately  great  may  be  safely  calculated  on,  as  a 
general  result.  Thus,  if  it  costs  fifty  dollars  an  acre  to  till  and  gather 
an  acre  of  carrots,  and  that  acre,  upon  a  yearly  average,  will  give 
five  hundred  bushels,  the  crop  at  eighteen  cents  a  bushel,  which  is 
certainly  not  too  high,  gives  thirty-five  dollars  per  acre  as  the  clear 
profit,  after  taking  out  five  dollars  an  acre  for  fhn  use  of  the  land  j  a 

34 


26&  FAR:\IER'S  ASSISTAIS'T. 

profit  much  greater  than  can  be  realiied  by  raising  any  kind  of  grain. 
Neither  should  the  expense  of  tillage  be  regartled  where  the  clear 
profits  will  be  great,  though  not  to  be  realized  in  some  years,  ii 
it  may  be  calculated  on  as  a  reasonable  certainty,  that  those  profits 
will  eventually  be  realized. 

TIMBER.  The  right  time  for  felling  trees  for  timber  is  in  De- 
cember ami  January,  when  the  sap  is  down,  as  in  this  case  it  is  less 
liable  to  be  eaten  with  worms. 

By  experiments  of  >Ir.  Baffon,  it  is  fouud  that  trees  which  are 
stripped  of  their  bark  in  May  or  June,  while  standing,  and  then 
cut  down  the  next  winter  for  timber,  are  found  to  make  the  most 
solid,  heavy,  and  strong  timber,  evea  the  sap  is  then  good.  The 
bark  of  oak,  and  some  other  trees,  may,  at  that  time,  be  stripped 
off  to  advantage  for  the  use  of  tanning. 

Soaking  timber  in  salt  water  is  very  good  to  increase  its  strength 
and  durability. 

In  order  to  preserve  timber  from  cracking  while  seasoning,  let  it  be 
blocked  out  for  the  puqioses  wanted,  and  laid  in  a  hay-mow  when 
Uie  hay  is  cartiug  in.  When  the  hay  is  dealt  out  the  next  win- 
ter, the  pieces  may  be  taken  out  well  seasoned,  and  free  from  cracks. 
This  is  an  excellent  plan  for  seasoning  all  kinds  of  timber  for  car- 
riages, 6:€.  When  this  is  to  be  done,  if  the  trees  be  felled  in  winter, 
let  them  lie  in  logs  until  hay-time  arrives. 

The  right  time  for  cutting  down  trees  for  timber,  is,  when  they  are 
in  their  prime  ;  as  the  wood  will  then  have  arrived  to  its  greatest  per- 
fection for  hardness  and  durability. 

TlMOrHY-GRASS;  (Phlnim  Pratensc.)  This  is  a  coarse 
grass,  but  agreeable  to  all  sorts  of  cattle,  and  suitable  to  low  moist 
grounds.  It  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  America.  The  name  of  Timo- 
thy was  given  it  in  the  southern  states,  by  its  having  been  car- 
ried from  Virginia  to  Xorth-Carolina  by  one  Tiowthy  Htuiso.  It  i^ 
also  called  lulbetis  cat's-tail  gi'oss. 

Sec  article  Grasses. 

TOBACCO  ;  (yicotiana.)  This  plant  has  its  name  from  Tobago, 
one  of  the  Carribee  islands.  It  was  first  introduced  into  England,  and 
from  thence  into  Europe,  by  the  famous  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

For  raising  the  young  plants,  burn  a  piece  of  ground  early  in  the 
spring,  rake  it  well,  and  sow  the  seeds.  When  the  plants  have 
acquired  leaves  of  the  size  of  a  shilling  piece  transplant  them.  They 
require  a  dry,  light  £uiJ,  and  a  rich  one,  well  mellowed  with  plough- 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  267 

iflgs.  Dung  of  the  hottest  kinds  are  suitable  to  it,  though  cow-dung 
in  sandy  soils  will  do  well  for  raising  it.  Transplant  the  young 
plants  when  the  ground  is  wet,  as  in  the  case  of  cabbage  plants,  and 
afterwards  hoe  them  and  clean  them  of  weeds  as  you  <lo  these,  and 
destroy  the  large  green  worms  which  feed  on  them.  The  plants  are 
to  be  set  at  the  distance  of  about  three  and  a  half  feet  apart. 

Cutoff  the  tops  of  the  plants  at  the  height  of  about  three  feet,  more 
or  less,  as  they  may  be  more  or  less  thrifty,  except  those  designed  for 
bearing  seed,  and  let  these  be  the  largest.  The  cutting  should  be 
done  so  early  as  to  let  the  upper  leaves  acquire  a  size  equal  to  the 
lower  ones,  and  let  them  all  be  cut  off  at  the  same  time,  whatever  the 
size,  in  order  that  good  thick  leaves  may  be  afforded.  Let  the  suck- 
ers which  shoot  out  from  the  foot  of  the  stalks  be  also  broken  or 
pinched  off  as  they  appear. 

The  ripeness  of  tobacco  is  known  by  small  dusky  spots  appearing 
on  the  leaves,  and  by  their  feeling  thicker  than  usual.  Then  cut 
them  down  at  the  roots,  on  the  morning  of  a  sunny  day,  and  let  them 
lie  singly  to  wither,  but  be  careful  not  to  let  them  get  sun-burnt. 
When  withered,  lay  them  in  close  heaps,  under  cover,  to  sweat,  for 
about  forty-eight  hours  or  more.  After  this,  hang  them  up  under  cover 
to  dry.  The  way  to  do  this  is  by  running  two  stalks  on  the  ends  of  a 
sharp  stick,  and  thus  suspending  them  across  a  pole,  at  proper  dis- 
tances from  each  other.  As  the  plants  become  dry  and  brown,  place 
.them  nearer  together,  when  the  air  is  damp,  so  that  the  leaves  do  not 
crumble.  When  they  have  hung  till  all  the  greenness  has  left  the 
leaves,  and  when  they  are  a  little  damp,  strip  the^n  off,  pack  them  in 
casks,  Avell  pressed  down,  and  keep  them  in  a  dry  place.  They  will 
be  better  for  use  after  the  first  year. 

This  climate  is  too  cold  for  raising  tobacco  to  much  advantao-e,  ex- 
cept in  a  few  favored  spots  in  the  warmest  parts  of  this  state.  In  the 
colder  parts,  the  leaves  grow  too  thin  to  be  of  much  value. 

Some  practice  raising  crops  of  this  plant  in  their  cow-yards,  Avitli- 
out  much  previous  mellowing  of  the  soil;  but  it  is  genv-ra!ly  ill-tasted 
stuff,  and  of  but  little  value  in  the  market. 

The  above  is  merely  an  outline  of  the  method  of  cultivating  this 
plant.  For  a  minute  and  more  particular  description,  1  would  refer 
the  reader  to  "  Winterhothain's  Vicrv  of  the  United  States,'"  third 
volume. 

TOP-DRESSINGS.     See  article  Manures. 


46S  FARMER^S  ASSISTANT. 

TRANSPLANTING.  In  performing  this  operation,  Uiees»eDtiai 
point  is  to  set  the  roots  in  the  ground  in  a  eituation  similar  to  thai  in 
which  they  were  placed  before  they  were  taken  oul ;  not  only  the 
same  depth,  but,  aa  Mr.  Forsyth  says,  with  the  same  side  to  the  south 
%vhich  was  the  south  side  t>elore  :  But  as  they  caunot  be  got  out  of 
the  ground,  nor  set  again  into  it  with  their  full  length  of  root*,  these 
must  be  cut  off  to  a  length  proportionate  to  their  size.  Where  they 
are  very  small,  let  them  he  cut  at  the  length  of  six  or  eight  inches, 
end  where  they  are  pretty  large,  double  that  length,  or  more  :  Let 
them  be  carefully  taken  up  vithout  breaking  the  roots,  cutting  o£P 
tho?e  that  get  broken,  and  cutting  them  all  off  at  their  proper  length; 
and  let  the  hole  into  which  they  are  to  be  set,  he  sufficiently  large  to 
receire  the  roots  without  cramping  them  :  Then  shake  in  the  earth 
gently  about  them,  so  as  that  each  one  shall  retain  its  proper  position. 
As  it  b  difficult  to  give  the  fibrous  roots  their  proper  place,  it  is  gene- 
rally  best  to  cut  most  of  these  off.  In  fruit-trees,  all  the  downr^ht 
root?  should  also  be  cut  off. 

If  the  roots  have  been  some  time  out  of  ground,  it  is  advisable  to 
soak  them  in  water  for  eight  or  ten  hours  before  they  are  set  in.  In 
a  cold  or  stiff  soil  ihey  should  be  set  shallower  than  in  a  warm  mellow 
one.  After  they  are  properly  bedded  in  the  ground,  a  stake  should 
be  drove  in  near  to  each  one,  leaning  towards  them,  and  to  these  they 
should  each  be  tied,  to  keep  them  steady  ;  and  some  mulch  should  be 
laid  round  the  roots  of  each. 

In  transplanting  the  smaller  kinds  of  plants,  a  wet  time  is  to  be 
chf>&en.  aod  the  evening  is  better  than  any  other  time.  As  much  of 
the  earth  should  be  left  round  the  roots,  as  possible,  in  takiug  them 
out  of  the  ground ;  and  if  they  are  raised  with  a  little  instrument  call* 
ed  a  gardener's  trowel,  by  which  a  bunch  of  earth  can  be  raised  with 
thf  m,  they  will  be  the  better  for  it.  The  holes  where  they  are  set 
should  he  well  watered,  and  the  water  should  previously  be  weU 
warmed  by  the  sua. 

For  the  times  of  transplanting  different  plants,  and  the  distanccfs 
they  are  to  be  set  apart,  see  the  different  articles  which  are  the  sub- 
jects of  this  operation. 

TREFOIL.     Sf^  article  Grasses. 

TKENCH-PLOUGHING.  This  is  performed  for  two  purposes ; 
8r?t,  to  stir  up  the  earth  deeper  than  it  can  be  well  done  with  one 
plough  ;  and  secondly,  to  turn  under  an  old  exhausted  layer  of  ear|Jr, 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  26» 

in  order  to  turn  up  a  new  one  that  is  fresh  and  more  fertile.  It  is  of  tea 
Bset'ul  in  clay  soils,  the  top  of  which  has  been  worn  out.  In  deep 
rich  soils,  such  as  intervales,  &c.  it  may  also  be  found  good  husbandry, 
where  the  upper  stratum  has  been  long  under  the  plough  without 
manures. 

See  article  Freezing,  where  a  case  is  mentioned,  shewing  the  good 
effects  of  this  culture. 

The  method  is  first  to  run  a  furrow  with  one  plough  the  usual 
depth,  then  another  follows  after  in  the  same  furrow,  and  throws  up 
the  fresh  earth  as  deep  as  possible ;  then  the  next  light  furrow  ig 
thrown  into  the  bottom  of  the  deep  one,  and  the  deep  one  again 
follows,  and  throws  up  a  new  layer  on  the  top  of  the  old,  and  so  the 
work  proceeds, 

TUMORS.  Mr.  Bartlet  directs,  that  when  these  appear  on  the 
poll,  withers,  under  the  jaws,  or  in  the  groins  of  horses,  they  should 
be  forwarded  by  ripening  poultices  of  oatmeal  boiled  soft  in  milk, 
mixed  with  oil  and  lard,  and  applied  twice  a  day,  till  the  matter  is 
perceived  to  grow  soft  and  moves  under  the  fingers;  and  then  it 
should  be  let  out  by  a  sufficiently  large  opening  with  the  lancet. 
Let  the  opening  he  full  as  far  as  the  matter  extends.  After  cleansing 
the  sore  apply  pledgits  of  tow,  spread  with  a  salve,  or  ointment,  made 
of  Venice  turpentine,  bee's-wax,  oil  of  olives  and  yellow  rosin;  and 
let  these  be  administered  twice  a  day,  if  the  discharge  is  great,  till  a 
proper  digestion  takes  place,  when  it  should  be  changed  for  pledg- 
its spread  with  the  red  precipitate  ointment,  applied  in  the  same 
manner.  • 

Should  the  sore  not  digest,  but  run  a  thin  water,  foment  it  as  often, 
as  you  dress  it,  and  apply  over  the  dressing  a  strong  beer  poultice,  and 
continue  this  till  the  matter  grows  thick  and  the  sore  florid.  Should 
any  proud  flesh  get  into  the  sore,  wash  it  as  often  as  you  dress  it  with 
a  solution  of  blue  vitriol  in  water,  or  sprinkle  it  with  burnt  allum  and 
precipitate.  If  these  should  not  prove  sufficiently  powerful,  apply 
caustics,  by  washing  it  with  a  solution  of  half  an  ounce  of  corrosive 
sublimate  in  a  pint  of  water.  Where  the  sore  can  be  tightly  com* 
pressed  with  a  bandage,  however,  these  funguses  may  be  generally 
prevented. 

Tumors,  caused  by  bruises,  should,  if  necessary,  be  bathed  with  hot 
vinegar  or  verjuice;  and  then  a  flannel  cloth  should  be  wrapjted 
round  the  part,  if  it  can  be  done.  IT  this  does  not  ahate  the  swelling, 
especially  if  it  be  in  either  of  the  legs,  poultice  it  twice  a  day,  after 


270  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

bathing  it  with  wine  lees,  or  beer  grounds  and  oatmeal,  or  with  vine- 
gar, oil,  and  oatmeal,  till  the  swelling  abates;  when,  in  order  to  dis- 
perse it  entirely,  let  it  be  bathed  twice  a  day  with  a  mixture  ol  two 
ounces  of  crude  sal  ammoniac  in  a  quart  of  chamber-lie,  having  rags 
dipped  in  this  and  laid  on. 

Where  the  extravaeated  blood  is  not  dispersed  by  these  means,  let 
an  opening  be  made  in  the  skin,  and  let  the  blood  out,  and  then  heal 
the  wound. 

TURF  AND  PEAT.  Earth  covered  with  grass  is  properly  a 
turf;  but  that  which  is  here  intended  to  be  spoken  of  is  a  fossil  which 
is  generally  found  in  low  grounds  and  boggy  places.  It  is  sometimes 
confounded  with  peat,  but  that  is  a  dififerent  substance.  Where  turf 
has  been  dug,  the  hole  thus  made  will  grow  up  again  after  a  number 
of  years;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  peat.  Turf  seems  generally 
to  be  decayed  moss,  mixed  with  rotten  or  moory  earth,  and  aquatic 
grass  roots.  It  is  much  used  for  fuel  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  parti- 
cularly Holland,  where  they  take  much  of  it  from  the  bottoms  of  their 
canals.  It  is  inferior  to  peat  for  fuel,  and  it  yields  a  much  weaker 
kind  of  ashes,  which  are,  however,  of  considerable  value  as  a  manure. 
It  is  prepared  for  fuel  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  peat. 

Peal. — This  fossil  abounds  much  in  some  countries.  It  is  often 
found  under  other  layers  of  earth ;  sometimes  in  grounds  where  ponds 
have  formerly  been,  and  sometimes  in  the  banks  of  intervales.  It  is 
composed  of  the  essence  of  decayed  vegetables,  wood,  leaves.  Sec. 
placed  in  a  situation  where  there  is  not  heat  sufficient  to  produce  an 
entire  decomposition.  After  it  has  been  <lng  up  and  exposed  for 
Bome  time  to  the  common  atmosphere,  it  becomes  hard  iike  a  cinder, 
but  at  length  gradually  undergoes  a  further  change  and  turns  to  dust. 
It  is  valuable  for  fuel;  and,  when  burned,  the  ashes  it  affords  are 
much  superior  to  common  wood-ashes  as  a  manure.  Fifteen  bushels 
are  said  to  aCTord  a  good  top-dressing  for  an  acre,  the  effects  of  which 
will  be  perceived  for  three  years.  The  ashes  are  to  be  sown  by  hand, 
and  immediately  before  a  rain,  in  order  that  the  plants  may  not  be  in- 
jured by  its  heat.  They  are  said  to  have  a  better  effect  on  winter 
than  on  summer  grain.  For  leguminous  plants,  they  make  the  haulm 
too  luxuriant. 

Mr.  Elliot,  of  Connecticut,  says  he  searched  for  this  fossil  and  found 
it  in  seven  different  places,  The  best  way  to  find  if  is  by  Itoring. 
The  stratum  above  it  is  most  commonly  mud,  or  moory  earth,  tt  is 
known  by  its  being  entirely  free  from  grit  j  by  its  cutting  very  easy 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  271 

and  smooth  ;  and  by  its  burning  very  freely  when  dried.  It  may  be 
burned  into  charcoal;  and  the  red  sort,  Mr.  Elliot  says,  is  better  for 
this  jmrpose  than  wood.  When  burned  for  this  purpose,  it  is  to  be 
with  a  fire  similar  to  that  in  which  charcoal  is  made. 

Peat  is  sometimes  confounded  with  turf;  but  these  are  different 
substances. 

When  peat  is  dug  for  fuel,  it  is  cut  with  a  spade,  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, having  a  wing  to  it  at  a  right  angle,  so  that  every  time  you  sink 
the  spade  you  cut  out  a  block  about  four  inches  square  and  about  fif- 
teen inches  loog.  These  are  to  be  laid  singly  on  the  ground  to  dry. 
When  partly  dried,  they  are  to  be  piled,  open,  across  each  other,  and 
thus  in  a  few  days  of  dry  weather  they  will  be  fit  to  carry  home 
for  use. 

The  method  of  burning  peat  to  make  ashes  is  similar  to  that  of 
burning  clay. 

See  article  Burnt-Clay. 

After  you  get  the  fire  going,  you  may  burn  a  thousand  loads  if  you 
choose.  But  as  it  burns  more  readily  than  clay,  you  must. keep  the 
fire  sufiiciently  smothered  by  throwing  on  fresh  peat,  dug  from  the  pit, 
and  particularly  on  any  crack  that  opens.  If  the  fire  deadens  too 
much,  which  may  be  known  by  the  heat  of  the  outside,  run  a  pole  in- 
to the  heap  and  it  will  give  it  the  fresh  air  which  is  in  that  case 
req,uisite. 

After  the  heap  has  been  burned,  the  ashes  should  be  put  under 
cover  till  they  are  wanted  for  use ;  or  if  no  cover  can  be  had  let  them 
be  piled  up  as  high  as  possible  on  some  very  dry  spot,  and  covered 
with  swards,  or  with  such  earth  as  will  keep  off  the  rains  as  much 
as  possible. 

Trees  are  very  often  found  in  a  perfectly  sound  state  in  beds 
of  peat. 

The  increasing  scarcity  of  wood  in  many  places  in  this  countryj 
will  render  it  necessary  that  more  diligence  be  used  in  search  of 
this  valuable  article. 

TURNIP.  In  England  the  raising  of  this  root  is  a  part  of  field 
husbandry,  and  are  there  fed  to  sheep,  while  in  the  ground,  and  raised 
up  for  other  cattle  during  the  winter  season.  The  culture  of  them 
there,  is,  however,  in  part  superceded  by  that  of  carrots,  which  i& 
found  to  be  more  profitable.  In  this  country  the  severity  of  our  win. 
ters  presents  an  obstacle  to  tht;ir  ever  being  cultivated  on  the  large 
scale  which  they  are  in  Great-Britain.    We,  therefore,  merely  raise 


2n  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

them  for  the  table,  and  perhaps  a  fevr  Tor  sheep  and  others  of  out 
cattle. 

There  are  three  species  of  turnips  ;  the  flat  or  round  sort,  the  long, 
and  the  French  turnip.  The  Tormer  are  altout  as  good  as  any.  Ot 
this  kind  there  are  the  green-topped,  the  red  pur[>!e,  the  yellow,  and 
the  early  Dutch  turnip.  The  last  are  sown  early  in  the  spring  for  a 
supply  of  the  market  during  summer.  The  green-topped  is  the  most 
profitable,  as  they  grow  to  a  larger  sire,  and  are  mostly  raised  for 
winter  use. 

Turnips  require  a  rich  soil,  especially  where  they  grow  closely  to* 
gether.  Raising  them  on  new  cleared  lands  is  generally  the  most 
fortunate  for  escapiug  the  ravages  of  insects.  The  most  suitable  soils 
for  them  are  mellow  sandy  loams  and  gravelly  loams. 

On  old  ground,  the  best  methoti  is  to  enclose  and  break  up  a  piece 
of  sward  ground,  that  is  not  very  full  of  the  seeds  of  weeds,  and  fold 
it  till  the  time  of  preparing  it  for  the  reception  of  the  seeds ;  then 
make  it  fine  and  mellow,  and  sow  it  thickly,  in  order  that  in  all  pro- 
bability a  sufficient  number  of  the  young  plants  may  escape  the 
insects. 

For  keeping  these  off,  see  article  Insects. 

If  the  plants  be  all  destroyed,  sow  the  ground  again,  and  again,  un- 
til it  be  too  late  for  a  crop.  1  have  known  a  pretty  good  crop  raised 
which  were  sown  as  late  as  the  twentieth  of  August. 

If  a  sufficiency  of  the  young  plants  escape  the  insects,  as  soon  as 
they  have  got  five  or  six  leaves,  go  through  them  with  the  garden  hoe, 
and  thin  them  while  destroying  the  weeds,  until  they  stand  about  six 
or  eight  inches  apart.  If  they  stand  further  apart,  they  will  grow 
larger,  but  will  not  be  so  good  for  eating. 

I  have  seen  good  crops  raised  without  any  hoeing,  or  attention  to 
them  after  sowing,  particularly  in  new  lamls;  but  they  will  produce 
a  much  greater  crop  by  treating  them  as  above  directed ;  and  even  the 
hoeing  ought  to  be  repeated  if  the  weeds  again  rise  amongst  them- 
Forty-seven  tons,  equal  teas  much  as  sixteen  hundred  bushels,  have 
been  raised  from  an  acre  in  Ireland,  as  is  testified  liy  Mr.  Baker,  un- 
der his  culture  of  hoeing.  Those  who  have  made  no  spirited  trials 
will  hardly  conceive  how  much  the  hoeings  will  increase  the  product 
of  these  crojjs. 

In  England  some  of  the  most  spirited  farmers  apply  the  drill  hus- 
bandry' to  turnips,  as  this  is  found  to  yieM  the  sreatest  crops.  "  For 
two  years  past "  says  Mr.  Deane,  of  Massachusetts,  ''  I  have  80wb 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  273 

turnips  in  tlie  drill  way,  in  the  poorest  part  of  my  garden,  where  a 
Crop  of  pease  had  grown  the  same  summer,  and  never  had  better  tuF- 
fiips.  They  were  sufficiently  large  for  the  table,  though  they  grew  so 
near  together  in  the  rows  that  the  roots  crowded  each  other,  and  were 
not  so«n  earlier  than  about  the  tenth  of  August.  The  earth  was 
hoed  into  ridges  three  feet  Apart,  and  a  single  channel  seeded  on  each 
of  the  ridges."  Probably  two  rows  on  each  ridge  would  have  been 
found  more  productive. 

The  same  writer  observes,  that  he  cultivated  them  with  the  drill, 
hi  a  similar  manner,  in  the  way  of  field  husbandry,  and  found  his 
crops  more  abundant  than  those  sown  in  the  broad  cast  way.  The 
ridges  were  thrown  up  with  the  plough,  or  cultivator,  in  May,  and 
Were  kept  clear  of  weeds  till  aboiit  the  last  of  July,  when  the  seeds 
Were  sown  as  before,  and  nothing  more  was  afterwards  found  neces- 
sary, except  thinning  and  once  hoeing.  This  crop  prepares  the 
ground  pretty  well  for  a  crop  of  wheat. 

If  the  farmer  here  enters  into  the  cultivation  of  this  root  for  feeding 
Cattle,  he  must  gather  those  which  he  does  not  feed  out  in  the  fall,  and 
keep  them  where  they  will  be  protected  from  the  frosts.  Covering 
them  over  with  dry  sand  will  keep  them  well  in  a  cellar  which  is  not 
altogether  free  from  freezing.  Those  kept  for  the  table  should  also 
be  kept  in  dry  sand  during  winter. 

Turuips  are  excellent  for  fatting  sheep,  and  they  are  good  for  horn- 
ed cattle,  though  milch-cows  should  not  be  fed  very  plentifully  on 
them,  lest  they  give  the  milk  an  ill  taste. 

For  raising  turnip-seed,  take  some  good  sized  turnips  in  the  spring, 
and  plant  them  out  in  beds,  at  the  distance  of  eighteen  inches  apart, 
and  keep  them  clear  of  weeds.  Surround  them  with  some  stakes  and 
Sath  from  one  lo  the  other  to  keep  them  from  falling.  One  pound  of 
seed  is  tlie  allowance  for  an  acre ;  but  let  two  pounds  be  sowed,  in 
order  to  make  allowance  for  the  ravages  of  insects.  In  the  drill  me- 
'thod  less  seed  is  requisite. 

The  French  turnip  ouglit  to  be  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as 
is  above  directed,  allowing  them  more  room  in  growing.  They  should 
be  sown  only  about  a  month  earlier  than  other  fall  turnips.  The 
method  of  sowing  them  in  the  spring,  and  transplanting  them,  is  bad 
husbandry ;  as  the  early  sowing  occasions  them  to  grow  hard  and 
sticky,  and  the  transplanting  retards  for  a  while  their  growtlj,  and 
therefore  leaves  them  a  prey  to  insects  for  a  much, greater  length  of 
lime. 


SU  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

TURNIP-CABBAGE.  This  is  commonly  called  cabbage-lureip 
in  this  country.  The  stalk  rises  from  the  ground  like  the  cabbage 
Btalk,  and  then  extends  into  a  large  bulb,  or  knob,  something  similar 
in  shape  and  appearance  to  a  turnip  but  longer.  It  is  a  perennial 
plant,  and  will  withstand  the  sererity  of  the  frosts  of  this  country.  It 
5s  good  Cor  table  use  in  the  spring  and  does  not  grow  spongy  when 
Old,  like  turnips.  On  this  account  it  is  recommended  by  Mr.  Baker, 
for  use  on  sea  voyages.  It  has  for  some  years  past  been  cultivated 
to  no  small  advantage  in  England  for  feeding  cattle  ;  and  I  can  see 
no  reason  why  it  might  not  be  raised  here  to  equal  advantage  for 
feeding  them  in  the  spring. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  this  plant  would  be  found  very  profitable 
to  cultivate  in  this  country  for  spring  food  for  cattle,  and  particularly 
Tor  sheep,  as  it  may  stand  io  the  field  till  spring  without  injury  from 
the  frost3= 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  275 


u. 


ULCERS.  The  following  are  Mr.  Bartlet's  directions  for  treat- 
ing ulcers,  in  horses  particularly. 

The  first  point  is  to  bring  them  to  discharge  a  thick  matter,  which 
may  generally  be  effected  with  the  green  ointment,  or  that  together 
with  precipitate.  Should  the  sore  still  discharge  a  thin  matter,  ap- 
ply balsam, oil  of  turpentine,  melted  down  with  the  common  digestive, 
and  the  strong  beer  poultice  over  them. 

See  article  Tumors. 

The  part  affected  should  be  well  warmed  with  fomenting,  to  quick- 
en the  circulation,  &c.  If  the  lips  of  the  sore  grow  callous,  pare 
them  down  with  a  kife,  and  rub  a  little  caustic  over  them. 

Where  proud  flesli  appears,  let  it  be  carefully  suppressed.  If  it 
has  sprouted  above  the  surface,  pare  it  down  with  a  knife,  and  rub  the 
remainder  with  caustic.  To  prevent  its  rising  again,  sprinkle  the 
gore  part  with  equal  parts  of  burnt  allum  and  red  precipitate ;  or  wash 
it  with  sublimate  water,  and  dress  it  with  dry  lint,  and  draw  the  band- 
age tightly  over  the  sore  ;  for  a  tight  bandage  is  the  most  effectual  in 
dissipating  these  funguses. 

All  sinuses,  or  cavities,  should  be  laid  open,  as  soon  as  disco vered> 
after  baudages  have  been  ineffectually  tried ;  but  where  the  cavity 
penetrates  deep  into  the  muscles,  and  a  counter  opening  is  imprac- 
ticable, or  hazardous;  or  where  the  integuments  of  the  muscles  are 
constantly  dripping  or  melting  down,  these  injections  should  be  used. 
For  tliis  purpose,  take  of  Roman  vitriol  half  an  ounce,  dissolve  it  in 
a  pint  of  water,  decant  it  into  another  bottle,  and  add  a  pint  of  cam- 
phorated spirit  of  wine,  the  same  quantity  of  the  best  vinegar,  and  two 
ounces  of  Egyptiacum.  This  mixture  is  also  good  for  ulcerated 
greasy  heels,  which  it  will  cleanse  and  dry. 

These  cavities  sometimes  become  lined  within  with  a  callous  sub- 
stance, and  in  such  case  they  should  be  laid  open,  and  the  hard  sub- 
stance cut  away.    Whore  this  cannot  he  done,  scarify  them,  and  ap> 


27«  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

^ly  the  precipitate,  rubbing  them  now  and  then  with  caustic,  buUec 
of  antimony,  or  equal  parts  of  quick->ilver  and  aqua-fortis. 

When  the  bone  under  the  ulcer  has  become  carious,  which  may  be 
ascertained  by  probing  it,  it  should  be  laid  bare,  in  order  that  the  rot- 
tan  [)art  may  be  removed.  In  this  case  all  the  loose  flesh  should  be 
removed,  the  bone  scraped  smooth  to  the  sound  part,  and  then  <lres9ed 
vith  dry  lint,  or  with  pledgits  dipped  in  the  tincture  of  myrrh,  or 
euphorbium. 

Where  the  cure  does  not  properly  succeed,  mercurial  physic  should 
be  given  at  proper  inter^'als:  and  to  correct  the  blood  and  juices,  the 
antimonial  and  alterative  powders,  with  a  decoction  of  guaiacum  and 
lime  water,  are  good. 

URINE.     See  article  Makuees. 

Human  urine  ought  to  be  preserved,  for  it  is  found  to  be  much 
stronger  than  that  of  beasts.  It  is  eidvisable  to  have  a  stcrcoran/  near 
the  house  where  the  urine  should  be  thrown.  This  urine  whpa  throwa 
on  earth  for  sime  time,  and  mixed  with  it.  is  fwund  to  make  an  excel- 
lent manure. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  277 


V. 


VEGETABLE  OYSTER.  This  root  is  commonly  so  called,  on 
account  of  its  having  much  of  the  taste  and  smell  of  an  oyster,  when 
boiled  soft,  and  then  fried  after  the  manner  of  oysters.  It  is  easily 
raised,  and  requires  a  culture  similar  to  that  of  carrpts,  &c.  The 
roots  should  be  dug  in  the  fall,  and  protected  from  the  effects  of  win- 
ter frosts. 

VENTILATOR.  M.  Duhamel  applied  the  ventilator  to  grain,  in 
granaries,  with  excellent  effect  in  introducing  pure  air,  and  excelling 
the  impure,  in  order  to  prevent  the  heating  of  the  grain. 

Mr.  Deane  recommends  a  common  hand-bellows  for  the  purpose 
by  carrying  the  air  from  it  through  a  tube  to  the  bottom  of  the  grain, 
in  different  parts,  and  blowing  in  the  pure  air,  which  will  of  course 
expel  the  foul.  Grain  that  is  to  be  sown  should  be  frequently  venti- 
lated, if  kept  long  in  a  confined  place,  otherwise  it  will  lose  most  of 
Its  vegetative  power, 

VERJUICE.  A  juice  extracted  from  crabbed  unripe  grapes,  or 
apples,  too  sour  for  wine  or  cider.  The  English  crab-apple  is  much 
used  for  this  purpose,  and  ours,  though  different  from  that  of  the  Eng- 
lisn,  would,  no  doubt,  answer  equally  well. 

VETCH  ;  (Vicia.)  A  kind  of  pulse,  the  pods  being  like  those  of 
pease,  but  smaller,  and  it  is  cultivated  like  field  pease.  Some  vetches 
are  sown  in  the  fall,  and  are  called  winter  vetches,  and  others  in  the 
spring,  and  are  called  spring  vetches.  They  do  not  exhaust  the  soil ; 
and,  therefore,  Mr.  Livingston  supposed,  that  the  spring  vetches  might 
be  valuable  to  be  sown  on  summer  fallows  to  precede  a  crop  of  wheat. 
He  accordingly  made  two  trials  of  them,  the  seed  being  brought  from 
England ;  but  the  results  of  these  not  being  perfectly  satisfactory, 
particularly  in  the  product  of  seed,  there  is  some  reason  to  believe, 
that  the  culture  was  not  such  as  it  ought  to  be.  The  produce  of  his 
best  experiment  was  at  the  rate  of  about  twenty-five  hundred  weight 
to  the  acre.     "  The  fodder,"  ho  says,  "  appeared  to  be  rcraarkablv 


278  PARMER'S  AS8IS1  AiNT. 

succulent,  and  extremely  well  calculated  for  cows  and  sheej).'  He 
is,  however,  of  opinion,  that  the  cause  of  his  lailing;  in  the  requisite 
quantity  of  seed,  which  in  England  is  twenty-five  or  thirty  bu.-hels  to 
the  acre,  was  owing  to  sowing  too  thick,  (three  bushels  to  the  acre,) 
and  to  manuring  with  gyjisum,  which  he  supposes  makes  the  plant 
run  more  to  haulm  than  it  otJierwise  wouUl  do. 

Probably  this  plant,  when  the  seeds  are  imported,  requires  a  natu- 
ralization to  our  soil.  At  all  events,  if  a  tou  and  a  quarter  of  this 
fodder  could  be  raised  to  the  acre,  as  a  summer  fallowing  crop,  to- 
gether with  a  due  proportion  of  seed,  the  culture  of  it  would  be  toler- 
ably advantageous  by  making  this  the  intermediate  crop  between  the 
breaking  up  of  sward  land  and  a  crop  of  wheat,  as  only  one  ploughing 
is  requisite  after  taking  off  this  crop,  for  sowing  the  ground  with 
uheat. 

Vetches  which  are  sown  in  the  fall  are  used  in  the  spring  for  feed- 
ing sheep  and  other  cattle ;  they  may  afterwards  be  mowed  fur  ibdder 
and  it  is  said  they  may  he  mowed  twice  a  year  in  warm  climates.  Mr. 
Livingston  mowed  the  crop  of  his,  which  grew  best,  about  the  iwen- 
lieth  of  August ;  but  these  were  spring  vetches. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  this  plant,  and  probably  each  kind  may 
not  be  equally  well  suited  to  our  climate.  Probably  if  further  trials 
were  made  of  this  plant,  results  of  a  more  favorable  nature  might  be 
obtained. 

VINE  AND  VINEYARD.  Wherever  any  kinds  of  grapes  grow 
wild,  they  may  be  there  cultivated  to  advantage  for  making  wines, 
and  may  be  habituated  to  a  colder  climate,  in  the  jnore  southerly 
tjarls  of  this  state  there  are  two  si)ecies  of  grapes,  of  which  there  are 
varieties;  the  !>lack-grape,  litis  lahrusca,  and  the  fox-grape,  vitvs 
fulpina,  In  the  more  southerly  climates,  particularly  on  the  waters 
of  the  Ohio  and  Missisippi,  there  are  much  greater  varieties  uf  thete 
grapes. 

The  little  black  grape  grov.s  in  plenty  along  the  3Iohawk  river, 
but  the  higher  grou;uls  do  not  produce  them.  .Aluch  of  the  western 
part  of  this  state  is  also  equally  well  calculated  for  the  large  grape  as 
the  southern.  But  as  different  kinds  of  grapes  are  successfully  culti- 
vated in  our  gardens,  and  yet  generally  with  but  indifl'erent  culture, 
it  is  but  reasonable  to  believe,  that  in  the  greater  part  of  this  slate, 
spots  may  be  telected  in  which  the  vine  may  be  cultivated  toad 
vantage. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT*  27d 

For  garden-grapes,  Mr.  Forsyth  selects  the  rvhiU  muscadine,  or 
chasselas,  which  is  a  great  hearer ;  the  white  snect-'^vatcr,  which  is 
very  fine  tasted,  and  ripens  in  September;  the  black  sweet-ivatcr, 
■which  also  ripens  early  ;  the  large  block  cluster,  which  is  harsh  tasted, 
being  that  of  which  the  Ojjorto  wine  is  made ;  and  the  small  black 
cluster,  which  is  pleasant  tasted. 

The  spots  most  favorable  lor  vineyards  are  the  sides  of  hills  or 
mountains,  descending  southwardly,  or  to  the  east,  but  to  the  south  is 
best,  and  let  the  soil  be  loose  and  mellow,  so  as  not  to  be  liable  to  be 
much  washed  by  heavy  rains.  Stiff  soils  are  not  good ;  though  by 
carting  on  much  sand,  ami  other  loosening  manures,  they  will  answer 
tolerably  well.  The  ground  must  be  well  mellowed  by  ploughings, 
and  mixed  with  sand,  if  it  be  not  already  sandy,  and  such  manures  as 
will  serve  to  make  it  rich  ant?'  keep  it  mellow.  Where  the  side  hillg 
are  steep,  (and  such  produce  the  best  vines,)  it  is  advisable  to  cart  on 
stones  of  small  and  middling  size  to  mix  with  the  soil,  which  help  to 
keep  it  moist  and  warm  ;  and  a  part  of  them  are  to  be  laid  along  ia 
ridges  on  the  lower  side  of  each  row  of  vines,  to  keep  the  earth  from 
washing  away.  Round  the  vinej'ard  let  a  good  substantial  fence  he- 
made,  which  will  serve  to  keep  out  both  meu  and  beasts.  The  north- 
erly sides  of  the  vineyard  should  be  well  protected  from  the  north- 
erly winds. 

For  a  selection  of  vines  far  planting,  Mr.  Johnson  recommends  the 
following  as  being  hardy  and  best  suited  to  this  climate  :  The  black 
Axivernat  ;  the  hlcick  Orleans;  the  blue  cluster;  the  miller  grape  ; 
(these  make  the  best  Burgundy,)  the  black  Hamburgh  ;  the  red  Ham- 
burgh ;  the  white  Muscadin  ;  the  Muscadella ;  the  melie  blanc  ;  the 
nhite  MorriUon  ;  the  white  Auvernat  ;  and  the  grey  Ajtvernat. 

The  seven  following  kinds  also  ripen' in  September,  but  are  no;: 
quite  so  hardy,  and  should  therefore  occupy  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
tineyard :  'I'he  Chasselas  blanc,  or  royal  Muscadine ;  the  Malvois^ 
or  Malmsey  ;  the  grey  Frontinac  ;  the  red  Froniinac  ;  the  black  Lis- 
bon ;  the  rvhite  Lisbon  ;  and  the  Chasselas  Noir. 

In  addition  to  these  nineteen  kinds,  let  the  fox  ant>  the  black  grape* 
before  mentioned,  as  being  indigenous,  be  also  added  to  the  list,  the 
former  of  which  is  probably  inferior  to  none  of  them. 

The  next  point  is  to  select  the  branches  for  the  cuttings  with  which 
to  plant  the  vineyard.  These  are  to  be  taken  from  the  bearing  part 
of  the  vines;  and  among  these  such  as  are  short  jointed,  from  which 
you  may  expect  vines  which  will  be  thrifty  and  fruitful.  They  should 


t>m  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

be  sound,  of  a  healthy  appearance,  thick  set  with  eyes,  aud  tJie  ueartr 
the  last  year's  growth  the  better.  Let  them  he  cut  close  to  tne  old 
wood,  where  tl)ey  will  he  more  fi  m ;  and  they  arc  not  to  be  cut  to 
their  proper  length,  which  is  alK)ut  five  inches,  uutil  you  are  about  to 
plant  them  in  the  vineyard.  Gootl  branches,  of  the  length  of  three 
feet,  may  aCTord  four  or  five  cuttings,  though  those  which  are  nearest 
to  the  old  wood  are  esteemed  the  best. 

Some  cut  off  the  branches  to  be  used  for  cuttings  in  October,  and 
others  again  in  March  or  A|)ril.  If  at  the  latter  times,  they  are  to  be 
planted  in  April  or  May,  and  the  next  winter  they  must  be  secured 
ttom  the  frosts  by  coarse  litter  piled  up  round  them,  which  in  the 
spring  following  may  be  strewed  over  the  ground  for  manure.  If  the 
cuttings  be  planted  in  the  fall,  they  are  to  be  in  the  same  manner 
preserved  frbm  the  winter  frosts ;  one  methw!  is  also  to  set  them  out 
closely  in  tlie  tall,  in  some  warm  dry  spot,  in  a  trench  alx)ut  a  focft 
wide,  T\  hich  should  be  well  prepared  by  diggihg,  and  over  them  erect 
a  roof  made  of  straw,  well  secured,  to  keep  olf  the  frosts,  and  the 
heads  ol  the  branches  to  be  kept  in  an  upright  position,  by  poles  or 
laths  surrounding  them  for  that  purpose,  in  order  to  prevent  their  ly- 
ing on  tlie  ground,  an«l  thus  becoming  mouldy. 

In  planting  the  cuttings  io  the  vineyard,  after  the  ground  has  been 
well  prepared,  as  before  directed,  let  the  thick  ends  be  cut  off  square 
with  a  sharp  knife,  and  the  upper  ends  oldiquely,  about  half  an  inch 
above  the  eye.  Plant  them  at  the  distance  of  about  eight  or  ten  feet 
each  way,  and  let  the  earth  be  pressed  round  them  with  the  toot. 
They  are  to  be  set  in  an  inclined  position,  leaving  the  upper  bud  or 
eve  nearly  as  low  as  tlie  surface  of  the  soil,  and  be  careful  not  to  in- 
jure the  eye  in  treading  the  earth  about  it.  lu  the  sj>ring,  while  the 
nichtly  frosts  prevail,  let  this  bud,  or  eye,  be  slightly  covered  with 
earth  in  the  evenings,  to  save  it  from  the  frosts,  and  again  uncovered 
in  the  mornings. 

Rt  member  to  drive  in  the  stake,  on  which  the  shoot  is  to  be  train- 
ed, at  ihe  north  side,  so  as  to  give  the  shoot  all  the  warmth  of  the  :ud. 
When  the  shoots  begin  to  put  forth,  for  some  will  rise  from  under 
ground,  let  them  all  grow  for  a  certain  time,  in  onler  that  you  may  have 
an  o[iportunity  of  determining  which  is  likely  to  be  the  bc<t ;  and 
these  are  the  roundest,  shortest  jointed,  and  the  most  thick  set  with 
eyes.  Those  w  hich  grow  long  and  spindly,  with  few  eyes,  arc  not 
good.  When  you  have  thus  ^elected  the  best,  pinch  off  all  the  rest ; 
for  all  the  nourishment  which  the  roots  can  afford  are  requisite  for 


FARIMEH'S  ASSISTANT.  S»l 

Hi  growth.  As  it  advances  in  gro^vth,  fasten  it  to  the  sunny  side  of 
the  stake,  so  that  it  be  not  beaten  about  with  the  winds,  and  [)inch  off 
its  tendrils,  laterals,  nephews,  and  suckers,  not  closely,  however,  but 
at  some  little  distance  from  the  body  of  the  tnain  shoot. 

This  shoot  may  rise  to  the  height  of  eight  or  t*?n  feet  in  a  summer, 
if  left  to  grow  its  full  length;  but  its  growth  must  be  checked  at  the 
height  of  not  more  than  four  feet ;  otherwise  its  streugth  btecomes  ex- 
hausted in  the  production  of  waste  wodd,  and  the  head  becomes  fee- 
ble, and  incapable  of  bearing  the  lateral  branches,  which  it  is  destined 
to  support. 

October,  or  rather  when  the  leaf  begins  to  fall  off,  is  the  time  kt 
trimming;  and  then  the  branch  should  be  cut  down  to  two  s^ood eye^ 
not  reckoning  the  lowermost  next  the  old  wood,  which  is  called  the 
dead  eye;  or  you  may  leave  several  eyes,  which,  during  the  next 
spring,  will  furnish  a  number  of  sprouts,  and  from  these  select  the 
ttvo  best. 

The  viae  bieing  thus  pruned.  Some  direct  to  open  the  ground  round 
the  roots,  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  and  to  cut  away  the 
roots  to  that  depth,  not  closely,  however;  and  let  this  be  repeated  for 
the  first  three  years ;  the  use  of  which  is  to  make  the  vine  take  deeper 
root,'  which  it  is  said  makes  them  more  durable,  fruitful,  and  less  liable 
to  be  irijured  by  droughts. 

No  particular  notice  is  herfe  taken  of  the  method  spoken  of  by  Mr. 
Johnson,  of  bending  the  vines  down  to  the  ground  at  the  approach  of 
each  winter,  during  the  first  three  winters,  and  covering  them  slightly 
with  earth,  to  protect  them  from  the  frosts,  because  it  is  not  believed 
that  this  process  is  requisite.  If  it  be  found  so,  the  head  must  not  be 
fcovered  with  earth,  but  with  chaff,  or  some  such  dry  stuffy  to  keep  it 
cool  and  dry. 

The  second  year's  growth  should  only  exhibit  tw6  branches  train- 
ed. The  good  eyes  will  all  shoot  forth  in  the  spring;  and  let  them 
all  grow  to  the  length  of  about  eight  inches  before  you  select  the  two 
niOst  proper.  These  shouhi  have  the  characteristic?  already  described, 
as  necessary  for  the  best  branch  oi  the  first  years  growth.  Check 
the  branches  of  the  second  year's  growth  at  about  five  feet,  pinching 
oQ'the  laterals,  6lc.  at  about  four  inches,  as  before  directed.  In  the 
fall  when  the  leaves  begin  to  drop,  trim  the  vines  again,  as  before 
Now  you  have  two  main  branches  to  trim,  and  these  should  be  cut 
down  to  within  four  or  fivo  <rnod  eyes  of  last  y^arV  vs-nod,  tio^Vinfr:  with 


282  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  upper  roots  as  before,  and  burjing;  the  Fiaes  during  wioler,  as  be- 
fore mentioned,  if  this  be  found  aecessary. 

The  third  year  presents  two  main  branches,  each  furnished  with 
four  or  five  eyes.  Proceed  as  before  in  the  choice  of  ebooU  to  be  re- 
served, training  only  two  from  each  branch  :  Thus  you  will  have  four 
main  branches  this  year.  If  you  find  your  vines  begin  to  bear  this 
year,  pluck  off  nearly  all  the  clusters  \rhile  young;  lor  by  too  early 
bearing  the  vines  become  debilitated,  and  materially  injured  for 
bearing  afterwards. 

With  respect  to  cropping  and  pruning  the  vine,  be  always  careful 
to  check  its  aspirroe  nature,  and  keep  it  of  humble  size,  by  which 
means  it  i9  always  easy  to  be  managed  by  manual  Iat>or,  and  less  euI> 
ject  to  be  injured  by  the  violence  of  winds. 

In  the  fourth  year,  training  again  two  branches  from  each  trained 
branch  of  the  previous  year,  you  wiU  have  eight  branches  to  each 
rine.  Tou,  therefore,  proceed  as  before  in  humbling  the  vine,  an^ 
proportioning  its  quantity  of  fruit  to  its  ability  to  bear ;  and  remember 
not  to  let  the  vines  bear  all  the  iVuit  ihey  put  forth,  oatil  ihey  are 
ftUly  able  todoit»  without  injqry  to  them  afterwards. 

All  this  time  the  ground  of  the  vineyard  is  constantly  to  be  kept 
light  an<l  mellow,  and  perfectly  clear  of  weeds  and  grass.  For  this 
purpose,  straw,  chaff,  6as-shives,  and  every  tMog  of  the  kind  is  t9 
be  carried  on,  and  spread  over  the  ground,  to  keep  it  mellow  and 
moist,  and  to  prevent  its  washing.  Observing  this  the  first  lour  yean 
greatly  forwards  the  vines,  and  at  the  same  time  prepares  them  for 
good  crops  afterwards;  nor  should  the  practice  be  afterwards  whoHjr 
dbconlinued. 

In  planting  a  vineyard,  it  is  ako  requisite  to  have  a  nirrsery  of  the 
vines  at  the  same  time,  to  supply  those  which  may  die  when  planted 
out.  The  ground  of  the  nursery  should  not  he  so  rich  as  that  of  the 
Tineyard ;  it  should  be  kept  clear  of  vveeds  and  well  hoed,  and  it 
should  be  planted  pretty  thickly,  in  order  that  the  roots  do  not  extend 
too  much. 

A  vineyard  of  an  acre  should  contain  but  two  sorts  of  grapes,  and 
one  of  two  acres  should  not  generally  contain  more  than  four  sorts. 
Ever}'  kind  of  grape  should  be  made  into  w  ine  by  itself,  and  not  mix- 
ed with  others. 

The  vine,  where  the  climate  and  soil  is  most  satiable,  will  grow  ta 
a  prodisious  size,  and  live  to  a  sur-irising  length  of  years.  Strabo, 
^eaks  of  a  vine  which  was  twelve  feet  in  circumferpnce ;  and  Pliny 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  283 

aAiO  mentions  one  which  was  six  hundred  years  old  !  In  the  westera 
parts  ot  this  state,  and  elsewhere  in  that  direction,  I  have  seen  them> 
where  frona  the  size  of  the  trees  on  which  they  were  supported,  and 
they  must  have  grown  up  with  the  trees,  they  could  not  be  less  than  8, 
hundred  years  old. 

Mr.  Johnson  observes,  that  from  the  prices  which  grapes  have  beeB 
sold  for  in  our  largest  cities,  the  income  of  an  acre  of  vineyard  would 
amount  to  six  hundred  dollars  ;  but,  perhaps,  this  calculation  is  rathcf 
too  large.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that  their  cultivatioit> 
whether  they  are  to  be  made  into  wine,  or  to  be  picked,  and  sent  into 
our  cities,  or  elsewhere,  for  sale,  must  undoubtedly  be  profitable. 

Tht!  method  of  [)reserving  grapes  to  send  abroad,  is  to  pack  them 
up  in  dry  saw-dust,  or  bran ;  and  in  that  situation  they  may  be  ex- 
ported, if  they  should  not  be  wanted  at  home,  with  the  same  facility 
and  safety  that  they  are  at  present  sent  from  other  countries  into  thifll, 
for  sale.  Probably  they  ought  to  be  put  up  a  little  before  they  are 
fully  ripe.  In  Albany  and  New-York  they  sell  for  as  much  upon  afi 
average  as  25  cents  per  pound. 

The  foregoing  is  mostly  an  abridgement  of  Mr.  JolMison,on  the  cul- 
ture of  the  vine,  and  very  nearly  agrees  with  Mr.  Winterbotham  oa 
the  same  subject  Mr,  Forsyth  describes  a  new  method  of  training 
the  vines  for  wall  or  garden  fruit,  but  this  does  not  seem  applicable  to 
the  vineyard.  His  method  is  exhibited  in  his  drawings,  which  are 
well  worthy  of  examination.  Other  essays  on  this  culture  may  also 
be  wortliy  of  examination ;  such  as  those  of  Speechley,  Miller,  An- 
till,  and  that  contained  in  the  Encyclopaedia  ;  and  even  the  song  of 
the  first  of  Roman  poets  on  the  subject,  if  it  should  not  aiford  ad- 
ditional instruction,  may  nevertheless  be  found  possessed  of  charms 
which  may  more  strongly  incline  the  man  of  taste  to  the  industri- 
ous culture  of  the  vine. 

For  the  method  of  making  the  wine,  see  article  Wine. 

Mr.  Livingston,  in  describing  the  beautiful  country  which  lies  upon 
the  Loire,  between  Nantz  and  Orleans,  in  France,  notices  "  the  farm 
houses  surrounded  by  gardens  filled  with  fruit-trees,  with  vines,  train- 
ed up  the  trees,  and  extended  from  one  to  the  other— Every  house, 
he  says,  is  also  covered  with  a  large  grape-vine,  at  least  on  three 
sides."  This  practice  he  very  justly  recommends  for  farmers,  as 
being  highly  ornamental  to  small  bouses,  useful  as  it  regards  health, 
convenient  for  shade,  while  the  fruit,  though  not  intended  for  wine, 
might  be  made  »  source  of  family  comfort  and  enjoyment.    He  ob» 


284  FAH^MER'S  ASSISTANT. 

serves  too,  that  the  earth  round  dwellings  is  always]  rich  auil  warm, 
and  therefore  well  adapted  to  the  grape. 

VIVES.  A  swelling,  says  Mr.  Bartlet,  of  the  kernels  under  the 
ears  of  a  horse,  heing  the  part  first  affected.  They  seldom  come  to 
matter,  but  perspire  off,  if  warm  clothing,  anointiug  with  marshniallow 
ointment,  and  a  moderate  bleeding  or  two  be  a[)plied.  But,  should 
the  indammation  continue,  notwithstanding  these  means,  a  suppura- 
tion should  be  promoted.  For  this  purpose,  make  an  ointment  of  an 
ounce  of  mercury  and  half  an  ounce  of  Venice  turpeutine,  pounded 
together  till  the  mercury  is  no  longer  visible;  then  add  to  it  two 
ounces  of  hogVlard,  and  anoint  the  swellings  with  this  till  a  supput 
ration  takes  place. 

For  destroying  proud  flesh  in  the  sore,  see  article  Ulcers. 

Mr.  Bartlet  says,  that  when  th^e  swellings  appear  in  an  old  horse 
Ihey  arc  signs  of  great  malignity,  and  often  of  an  inward  decay,  as 
well  as  forerunners  of  the  glanders.  He  also  says,  that  in  young 
horses  they  are  critical  and  should  be  managed  as  above,  instead  of 
applying  the  al>ove  ointment  at  first  to  disperse  the  swellings,  as  in 
that  case  there  is  danger  that  the  disease  may  be  thrown  on  the  lungs, 
or  into  the  thick  flesh  of  the  hinder  parts  of  the  horse,  where  tbej 
tvill  form  deep  imposthumes,  and  sometimes  kill  him. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  iJ85 


w. 


WAGGON-     iS'cc  article  Carriages. 

WALLS.  Stone  walls,  for  fences,  have  already  been  spoken  of". 
See  article  Stones. 

The  cellar  walls  of  a  house  should  be  laid  with  stone  and  lime;  not 
only  for  standing  more  firmly  and  a  greater  length  of  time,  but  also 
to  keep  out  the  frosts.  If  they  be  not  thus  laid,  it  generally  becomes 
necessary  to  bank  up  the  outrides  with  horse-dung,  or  something  that 
will  kee|)  out  the  frosts  which  tends  to  rot  the  sills,  and  at  the  same 
time  has  a  very  mean  appearance. 

The  stone  walls  of  many  ancient  castles  and  other  buildings  in  Eu- 
rope are  principally  held  together,  not  by  binding,  as  is  now  practised, 
but  by  the  force  of  cement.  This  cement,  it  is  believed,  is  nothing 
more  than  a  due  proportion  of  sand  and  lime,  made  very  thin  with 
water,  and  poured  into  the  middle  of  the  wall ;  not  merely  plaistered 
in  among  the  stones,  as  is  done  at  present.  The  advantage  of  this 
method  is,  that  the  lime  being  so  plentifully  mixed  with  water,  and 
for  such  a  length  of  time  before  it  evaporates,  has  sufficient  time  in 
part  to  dissolve  and  be  again  crystalized ;  and  in  crystalizing,  it  ad- 
heres to  the  stones,  and  thus  forms  a  solid  mass.  The  wall  must  be 
saturated  with  this  cement.  Even  pebble  stones  may  be  thus  cement- 
ed together  in  a  wall,  provided  they  be  ke[)t  in  tlirir  |)Iaces,  and  the 
mortar  be  kept  from  running  out  through  them  till  it  has  become 
hardened. 

The  due  proportions  of  lime  and  sand  for  making  the  strongest  c?- 
pient,  must,  however,  be  previously  ascertained'by  experiments  made 
for  the  purpose;  as  (he  proportions  of  each  depend  on  the  qualities  of 
each — that  is,  if  the  lime  have  but  little  of  other  earthy  matter  in  it, 
\he  less  of  it  will  answer;  and  the  more  sharp  and  gritty  the  sand,  the 
less  lime  will  be  requisite. 

Mr.  Livingston  mentions  the  houses  built  of  earth  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Lyons,  in  France,  which  are  well  worthy  of  attention  fts  a 


28b  FAKMER»S  ASSISIANT. 

matter  of  economy.  They  are  built  two  and  three  stories  hieh,  and 
many  of  them  have  stood  a  century.  The  earth  used  there  for  build- 
ing them  is  a  gravelly  loam.  A  clay  or  a  sand  will  not  answer,  but 
almost  every  other  earth  will.  The  earth  is  poimded  hard  with  sharp 
edged  beetles,  being  put  in  frames  made  for  the  purpose,  so  as  to  give 
the  masses  a  square  shape  proper  for  being  laid  up  in  the  wall.  These 
walls  are  sometimes  plaistered  on  the  outside,  but  will  auswer  well 
without.  The  barns,  and  garden  walls  there,  are  built  of  the  same 
material.  Columns  are  also  formed  of  the  earth,  in  the  same  manner, 
in  moulds  made  for  the  pur|)03e.  "  The  extreme  cheapness  of  these 
buildings,"  says  Mr.  Livingston,  "  the  facility  with  which  they  are 
made,  their  warmth,  their  security  against  fires,  recommend  them  so 
strongly,  that  I  shall  make  myself  complete  master  of  the  art  before 
I  come  over,  and  teach  it  to  my  countrymen,"  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
a  design  so  patriotic  has  not  been  frustrated,  and  that  its  execution 
may  be  duly  appreciated. 

WALNUT-TREES;  (JuHans.)  There  are  bat  five  kinds  of 
these  trees  in  this  country,  which  are — 

1.  The  hickory,  with  a  smooth  bark  and  a  firm  tough  wood,  excel* 
lent  for  axe-helves,  &c.     The  nut  of  this  tree  is  not  goo<l. 

2.  The  shas^hark  walmit,  which  is  not  so  hard  and  tough,  but  all 
the  red  part  of  the  timber  is  durable,  and  excellent  for  fence  rails  or 
building.  The  nut  of  this  tree  is  the  best  tasted  of  any  other  of 
the  kind. 

3.  The  hlack-rvalnul ,  is  natural  to  a  more  southerly  climate  than 
that  of  this  state.  The  timber  of  this  is  valuable  in  cabinet  work, 
and  is  also  excellent  for  rails  and  other  uses.  The  nut  of  this  is  large 
and  well  tasted. 

4.  The  huttcmnt,  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  more  northerly  cli- 
piates,  where  it  grows  very  large  and  high  in  the  forests.  It  is  also 
excellent  for  rails  and  other  uses,  and  the  nut  is  well  tasted. 

5.  The  Paccoji,  or  Jlliuois  nut,  which  grows  on  the  JMisissippi  and 
its  branches. 

The  growth  of  Uie  three  latter  indicates  a  fine,  rich,  dark  colorerf, 
loamy,  or  sandy  loamy  soil. 

The  ihascbark  tvafniit  is  commonly  found  on  a  good  soil,  inclining 
more  or  less  to  clay  ;  and  Iht*  hickory,  most  con)monly  on  a  warm, 
fertile,  gravelly  soil. 

Mr.  Forsyth  makes  mention  of  fifty  walnut-trees,  in  Grrat-Britaiij, 
Tfhicb  were  rented  out  for  fifty  pounds  alerlirg  a  year;  and  he  says, 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  287 

that  the  lessee  cleared  that  amount  from  them.  He  states,  that  they 
are  best  raised  from  the  nut,  gathered  when  fully  ripe.  They  will 
be  fit  to  transplant  the  first  autumn  after  sowing,  if  they  have  thriTen 
vrell — if  not,  let  them  continue  another  year.  They  are  then  to  be 
put  into  beds  and  transplanted  every  second  year,  until  planted  out 
for  good.  This  causes  their  throwing  out  fine  horizontal  shoots  and 
brings  them  to  a  bearing  state  much  sooner  than  when  they  aiake 
deep  tap  roots. 

They  are  to  be  trimmed  up  to  the  height  of  seven  feet,  and  by  that 
time  they  are  fit  to  be  set  out.  When  set  out,  he  says  the  ground 
should  be  trench-ploughed^  and  the  trees  set  in  rows  at  the  distance  of 
six  feet,  and  as  they  grow  larger,  those  which  are  found  to  be  the  best 
bearers  are  to  be  preserved  and  the  others  are  to  be  cut  away.  In 
trimming  the  trees,  the  ends  of  the  wood  cut  off  are  to  be  covered  ovet 
with  his  composition. 

See  article  Fruit-Trees. 

WARMING  ROOMS.  As  fuel  is  gradually  becoming  morescarce, 
it  becomes  essential  to  devise  the  best  means  of  making  a  little 
answer  every  requisite  purpose.  I  shall,  therefore,  describe  a 
very  cheap  and  simple  method  of  warming  a  whole  house,  leaving 
every  one  to  vary  from  this  method,  by  the  use  of  stoves,  or  otherwise, 
as  much  as  they  may  think  proper. 

Take  an  old  potash  kettle  which  is  no  longer  fit  for  use  in  a  potash- 
ery,  and  which  you  can  usually  purchase  for  ten  dollars  or  less — set 
it  bottom  upwards,  on  brick-work,  built  in  a  circle,  suitable  to  the 
size  of  the  kettle,  about  ten  inches  high,  leaving  a  place  to  fix  an  iron 
door,  like  the  door  of  a  common  stove :  Make  a  round  bole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  kettle,  into  which  insert  a  stove-pipe,  to  carry  off  the 
smoke.  Build  another  thin  brick  wall  all  round  and  over  this,  leaving 
a  space  every  where  of  about  three  inches  between  this  wall  and  the 
inner  brick  wall,  and  the  inverted  kettle,  and  leaving  also  a  place  for 
a  door  exactly  where  the  inner  one  is  placed.  Let  holes  be  made 
through  the  top  of  this  outer  wall  to  insert  tubes  for  carrying  off  the 
heated  air  into  different  rooms.  Make  a  fire  within  the  |)art  covered 
by  the  inverted  kettle,  which  will  burn  as  readily  as  it  will  in  a  stove, 
by  having  a  similar  door;  and  as  the  kettle  l>ecome3  heated,  the  air 
between  it  and  the  outer  wall  becomes  also  heated  and  rarified,  and 
of  course  ascends  through  the  tubes,  and  is  carried  into  the  rooms, 
while  fresh  air  is  constantly  pouring  in  through  the  outer  door  to  sup- 
ply the  place  of  that  whieh  has  been  heated  and  carried  off.     Th» 


23a  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

while  a  constant  current  of  warm  air  is  rushing  in  below  and  above,  a. 
like  current  of  warm  air  is  constantly  rushing  into  the  rooms.  U  hen 
the  rooms  are  sufficiently  tilled  with  the  warm  air,  turn  a  stop-cock, 
with  which  each  tube  sHouhl  be  su[)plied,  and  no  more  warm  air  will 
be  le4  in,  until  it  is  again  wanted. 

In  a  room  warmed  in  the  usual  way,  about  two  thirds  of  the  whole 
heat  of  the  fire  passes  out  of  the  chimney.  In  the  mean  time  all  the 
air. in  the  room  will  have  also  passed  out  of  the  chimney  io  less  than 
an  hour,  and  of  course  cold  air  from  without  must  rush  in  to  supply  its 
place.  Thus  the  whole  air  of  siich  room  has  to  be  hfeated  over  again 
once  an  hour,  and  this  is  to  be  done  with  only  a  third  of  the  heat  af- 
forded by  the  fire.  Now  according  to  the  plan  here  recommended, 
the  air  in  a  room  would  require  a  degree  of  heat  equal  to  warming 
the  whole  over  again,  about  once  in  six  hours  ;  as  the  heated  air  is  not 
to  be  allowed  to  pass  off  out  of  a  chimney ;  and  for  this  pur|)ose  of 
heating,  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  heat  of  a  smaller  fire  can  be  applied. 
Thus  a  room,  to  be  warmed  in  the  common  way,  retpjires  a  fire  which 
gives  twelve  times  the  quantity  of  heat  that  is  required  in  the  method 
above  described. 

This  heating  stove  may  be  set  in  the  kitchen,  but  a  cellar  kitchen, 
or  one  lower  than  the  dwelling  and  other  rooms,  would  be  best.  It 
may  also  be  set  io  a  small  building  adjoining  the  house,  but  let  it  be 
set  lower  than  the  rooms  of  the  house. 

But  in  order  toremler  this  complete,  let  the  steam-cooking,  baking, 
and  roasting  apparatus  be  attached  to  it.  For  this  purpose  let  the 
smoke  and  the  heat  that  goes  with  it,  pass  out  through  a  hole  about 
four  inches  square,  made  at  the  side  of  the  kettle,  oj)posite  the  door, 
and  let  it  be  carried  in  a  zigzag  manner,  back  and  forward,  under  the 
hottom  of  a  boiler,  made  of  sheet  iron,  and  this  will  sufficiently  heat 
the  water  in  that  to  afford  the  requisite  degree  of  steam  for  the  ves- 
sels used  for  cooking  by  steam,  as  well  as  for  heating  water  in  adjoin- 
ing wooden  vessels  of  different  sizes,  to  l>e  used  for  different  purpose?. 
The  pipe  conducting  off  the  smoke,  Sic.  after  having  passed  under 
every  part  of  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  is  then  to  be  carried  upwards, 
and  passes  round  three  sides  of  a  small  oven,  made  of  sheet  iron, 
which  is  to  be  used  for  baking  and  roasting.  The  outside  of  the 
smoke-pipe  is  to  be  coated  with  plaister,  as  high  as  above  the  ov€n, 
to  prevent  the  heat  passing  off  on  the  outside.  Plans  of  cooking  and 
boiling  api'iratus,  of  which  the  above  is  in  part  an  outline,  have  been 
patented  iry  two  gentlemen  of  Herkimer  county. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  289 

li  itsliould  be  found  that  the  heat  contained  in  the  smoke-pipe  uill 
not  sufficiently  heat  Uie  oven,  after  heating  the  boiler,  a  part  ot  the 
externally  heated  air  must  be  carried  into  the  oven  for  that  purpose; 
but  it  must  be  air  heated  in  an  apartment  by  itself,  having  no  con- 
nection with  the  rest  of  the  heated  air ;  and  it  must  be  let  off  very 
slowly,  by  means  of  a  very  small  pipe,  into  the  oven,  by  which  means 
it  will  be  sufficiently  heated  hefore  it  U  let  into  it.  If  too  much  be 
thrown  in,  the  door  of  the  oven  can  be  occasioually  opened,  and  let  a 
part  of  the  heated  air  pass  off. 

Thus,  with  one  half  of  the  fuel,  which  is  used  in  a  kitchen  fire- 
jdace,  every  room  in  a  house  of  moderate  size,  may  be  warmed  ;  all 
the  culinary  Ousiness  may  be  performed  ;  roots  may  be  boiled  for  cat- 
tle in  large  vessels  made  for  the  purpose ;  and  all  this  may  he  per- 
formed without  half  the  risk  from  fires  Avhich  attend?  the  usual 
methods. 

I  prefer  an  old  pot-ash  kettle  for  this  purpose,  on  account  of  its 
shape,  its  thickness,  its  cheapness,  and  of  its  being  well  tried  with 
tire.  A  small  sized  one,  however,  will  be  usually  found  sufficient  for 
this  purpose. 

For  close  stoves  to  be  set  in  rooms,  it  is  believed,  that  the  Rus- 
sian stoves  will  be  found  preferable  to  those  made  of  iron.  They  are 
built  of  brick,  and  may  be  made  of  different  forms.  They  should  be 
supplied  with  air  from  without  the  room  they  are  inten;led  to  warm  ; 
as  this  will  be  a  great  saving  of  the  heated  air  in  the  room.  They 
are  used  entirely  in  Russia,  and  they  require  less  fuel  than  ouV 
iron  stoves,  as  less  than  two  cords  of  good  wood  will  supply  one  of 
them  a  whole  winter.  Cooking  may  also  be  done  in  them,  as  in  our 
iron  stoves,  by  having  an  oven  fixed  in  them  for  the  purpose. 

WATER.  This  is  found  by  chemical  experiments  to  be  the  same 
substance  as  air,  but  in  a  more  condensed  form ;  being  composed 
of  about  eighty-five  parts  of  oxygene,  and  fifteen  parts  of  hydro- 
gene  gas. 

See  article  Air. 

This  substance,  however,  in  its  condensed  and  in  Its  gaseous  state, 
is  the  essential  food  of  plants  ;  as  no  vegetation  can  be  produced 
without  air,  nor  without  water ;  but  with  these  alone,  every  species 
of  plant  can  be  made  to  vegetate  to  a  certain  degree. 

It  is,  however,  unnecessary  to  dwell  minutely  on  this  article;  but 
something  should  be  said  of  its  application  to  meadow  lands  j  of 
drawing  it  off  where  ton  abuHdant;  and  of  applying  it  to  plant?. 


290  FARMER^S  ASSISTANT. 

Where  water  can  be  carried  over  lauds  without  loo  great  an  ex- 
pense it  should  always  be  attended  to,  as  great  crops  of  hay  maybe 
had  from  such  grounds.  The  means  of  watering  the  ground,  or  ol 
taking  it  off,  should  be  completely  under  control ;  for  if  too  much  be 
suffered  to  rim  on,  it  may  do  more  hurt  than  good.  Chalybeate  wa- 
ters, and  such  as  are  jm[>regna(ed  with  mineral  acids,  should  be  avoid- 
ed. That  which  has  a  rich  sediment  is  best.  The  quautity  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  nature  of  the  soil;  as  sandy  grounds  require  more, 
and  stiff  soils  less.  The  chauuels  should  be  so  made  as  to  carry  tlir 
water  to  everj'  part,  except  where  the  ground  is  naturally  wet.  T\w 
main  chauuel  sliouUIJust  have  descent  enough  to  cause  the  water  to 
run;  and  tbe  lateral  branches  should  l)e  run  in  such  directions  as  that 
the  descent  be  very  moderate,  and  at  the  same  lime  convey  the  water 
to  every  |)art  of  the  ground.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  carry  off 
the  surplus  water  by  other  channels,  where  the  ground  has  little  hol- 
lows running  through  it. 

Wheu  the  weatlier  is  lK»t  the  water  should  be  taken  off  the  ground. 
Tlie  night,  and  days  that  are  cool  and  cloudj,  are  the  best  times 
for  api)lyh>g  it. 

In  the  spring,  it  should  not  be  applied  till  the  ground  is  pretty  dry ; 
and  after  the  grass  begins  to  start  let  the  quautity  be  diniiuished,  and 
let  it  also  be  stopped  during  rainy  weather.  When  the  grass  is  pretty 
well  grown  no  water  should  be  applied,  except  in  cases  of  drought. 
After  taking  off  the  second  crop,  the  water  may  be  thrown  on  more 
plentifully,  bat  it  must  be  taken  off  some  lime  before  the  Avinter  frosta 
commence. 

The  foregoing  is  believed  to  be  the  most  suitable  directions  for 
watering  meadows  as  practised  in  this  country  ;  but  this  falls  far  short 
of  the  most  a|)provrd  practice  in  Great-Britain.  There  the  spots  se- 
lected for  the  purpose,  are  so  nearly  level,  after  the  ground  has  rc- 
ceivetl  its  proper  shape,  that  the  water,  which  is  let  in  at  one  side, 
will  but  barely  run  off  at  the  other.  The  ground  is  shaj)ed  exactly 
for  the  purpose  by  raising  it  where  it  is  too  low,  and  sinking  it  when- 
it  is  too  high ;  it  b  then  made  into  ridges  about  nine  yards  wide,  and 
a  foot  in  height,  with  an  uniform  descent  from  the  middle  of  each  trt 
the  extremes;  a  shallow  cliannel  is  then  made  on  the  highest  part  ol 
each  ridge  for  conducting  the  water  on  them,  and  another  on  the  low- 
est ground  l>etween  each  for  carrj  ing  it  off.  A  canal  is  made  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  piece  of  ground  for  supplying  the  water,  and  another 
on  the  lower  side  for  carrying  it  off,  after  it  has  served  the  purpose  of 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  291 

irrigation.  Thus  the  water  is  let  out  of  the  upper  canal  into  the  chan- 
nels made  ou  the  higher  parts  of  tlie  rulges,  which  channels  it  fills 
and  overflows,  just  enough  to  impart  a  due  proportion  of  water  to  each 
ridge.  The  water  thus  gently  overflowing  soaks  away  through  tlie 
soil  till  it  is  received  in  the  lower  channels,  and  by  them  it  is  carried 
into  the  lower  canal,  and  thence  carried  oET. 

It  will  readily  be  seen,  that  no  water  should  be  suffered  to  run  off 
into  the  lower  canal  from  the  channels  which  carry  it  on  the  heights 
of  the  ridges.  These  should  be  stopped  at  their  lower  ends.  Tlie 
water  in  the  upper  canal  should  be  under  perfect  control ;  so  that  no 
more  than  is  necessary  to  be  let  into  the 'higher  channels,  and  that  it 
be  taken  off  at  pleasure.  Where  the  supply  of  water  is  small,  a  part 
of  the  meadow  may  be  irrigated  at  a  time,  and  part  at  another,  in  suc- 
cession, till  each  part  has,  in  turn,  been  duly  supplied.  This  is  (o  be 
done  by  means  of  flood-gate^,  to  conGne  the  water  in  the  upper  canal, 
to  the  parts  where  it  is  required. 

The  upper  canal  is  to  be  supplied  from  a  durable  stream,  and  the 
more  turbid  this  is,  the  better.  Clear  limpid^streams  are  not  near  so 
good  for  the  purpose. 

This  method  of  irrigation  is  a  beautiful  and  ingenious  part  of  hus- 
bandry ;  and  seeing  that  it  has  been  so  successfully  practised  in  Eng- 
land, it  would  be  desirable  that  trials  of  it  should  be  made  here ;  as  in 
many  spots  it  might  be  found,  very  profitable.  For  a  more  full  de- 
scriptiou  of  this  method  of  culture  the  reader  is  referred  to  "  The  Com- 
plete Grasicr,'"  an  exgellent  work  lately  published  in  England,  to 
which  we  have  frequently  referred. 

For  raising  water  to  irrigate  lands,  w^hich  are  above  its  level,  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  wheels  may  be  useil,  which  are  so  well  known  as  to 
render  a  description  of  them  unnecessary.  The  method  of  raising  wa- 
ter by  the  force  of  wind,  in  the  manner  that  it  is  raised  out  of  the 
dykes  in  Holland,  may  also  be  resorted  to,  if  it  be  found  that  the  pro- 
iits  w  ill  warrant  the  expense.  The  reader  will  find  in  Darrviiis  Phi- 
:olc<^ia,  a  description  of  a  very  cheap  wind-machine  for  raising  water, 
which  probably  might  be  in  some  places  applied  to  advantage,  but 
most  particularly  in  raising  water  from  wells  for  supplying  cattle  with 

drink. 

Water-furrowing  lands  which  are  wet,  when  sown  with  summer 
grain,  is  of  great  importance  in  carrying  off  the  surplus  water ;  and 
the  furrows  should  be  made  deep,  and  cleared  out  with  a  shovel,  and 
carried  in  such  a  direction  as  will  cause  the  ground  to  l)e  tlie  least 


292  FARMER'S  ASSISTANl. 

gullied  by  heavy  showers.  The  same  may  be  said  of  grounds  sown 
V  ilh  wioter  grain  ;  but  wet  grounds,  particularly  if  they  He  flat, 
should  never  be  applied  to  this  use;  iot  if  the  ground  be  ever  =o  well 
ivater-furrowed,  the  furrows  usually  become  so  filled  %vith  ice  ae  to 
render  them  useless.  Grounds,  however,  of  moderate  descent  may  b« 
thrown  up  into  high  ridges,  so  as  to  answer  tolerably  well,  in  most 
i\"iuters,  for  winter  grain;  but  if  they  be  somewhat  steep  this  manage- 
ment usually  proves  injurious  by  the  washing?  of  heavy  rains.  Rather 
let  such  grounds  be  hollow-drained,  and  then  neither  ridging  uor  water- 
furrowing  will  be  nccessar}'. 

With  regard  to  watering  plants,  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  said,  is, 
that  cold  water,  as  drawn  from  wells,  should  never  be  applied  to  them. 
The  water  should  always  be  exposc<l  to  the  sun  for  such  time  as  will 
render  it  as  warm  as  rain-%vater ;  and  the  quantity  applied  at  once 
should  never  be  very  great ;  but  rather  like  the  application  of  a 
gentle  rain. 

^^'E  A  THER.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  the  farmer  to  be  able  to 
foretel,  with  some  degree  of  certainty,  the  future  state  of  the  weather ; 
but  thi?  depends  on  signs,  many  of  which  diCTer,  more  or  less,  in  dif- 
ferent places,  and  at  best  they  are  often  deceptive.  The  signs  of  the 
apiiroach  of  bad  weather,  have  always,  however,  been  deemed  more 
cert:nn  than  those  of  good;  but  anew  discovery  has  lately  been  made, 
ivhich  ought  here  to  be  noticed,  in  regard  to  the  signs  of  approaching 
good  weather. 

It  is  found  that  the  common  field  spider  is  endued  ^ithan  intuitive 
saeacily  in  this  particular.  When  the  weather  is  to  continue  v^et  and 
unsettled  his  labors  are  entirely  suspended.  When  be  is  found  em- 
ployed in  repairing  his  works,  which  the  rains  have  torn  to  pieces,  it 
is  an  indication  of  the  return  of  good  weather;  and  when  he  is  seen 
drawing  long  lines,  in  various  directions,  a  lengthy  spell  of  dry  wea- 
ther may  be  expected. 

When  the  air  becomes  surcharged  with  moisture,  it  may  be  known 
by  the  clouds  increasing  in  size ;  on  the  contrary,  when  the  air  is  dry, 
the  clouds  may  be  observed  gradually  to  diminish  and  the  small  ones 
at  length  disappear.^  In  the  former  case,  therefore,  rain  may  be  ex- 
pected ;  the  latter  is  an  indication  of  prevailing  clear  weather.  An 
excess  of  moisture  in  the  air  may  also  be  known  in  warm  weather,  by 
the  moisture  or  wetness  of  the  stones.  Contrary  currpnls  of  air  in  the 
atp'osuhere,  which  is  known  ity  the  clouds  moving  in  diiTerent  or  op~ 
posite  directions,  are  usually  productive  of  rain. 


FARiMER'S  ASSISTANT.  293 

When  stermy  weather  is  approaching,  neat  cattle  ami  sheep  seem 
more  than  usually  industrious  in  feeding,  and  seem  to  leave  their  i)as- 
tures  with  reluctance;  swine  are  uneasy,  grunt  loudly,  and  retire  to 
their  sties ;  geese  and  ducks  wash  themselves  repcatedlj- ;  dogs  be- 
come drowsy  and  stupid,  and  seem  to  have  an  aversion  to  food ; 
and  cats  loose  their  vivacitjs  and  remain  within  doors  :  Swallows  at 
such  times  are  also  observed  to  fly  low,  and  skim  the  surface  of  Ava- 
ters,  twittering  more  loudly  than  usual;  and  aquatic  birds  withdraAV 
to  the  sea-coast  or  to  marshes,  Arc.  A  change  fronj  unsettled  weather 
to  that  which  is  wetter,  is  indicated  by  flies  stinging  and  swarming 
more  than  usual. 

Circumst  mces  contrary  to  the  foregoing  evince  the  continuance  of 
good  weath'^r;  to  which  may  be  added  the  bees  flying  abroad  and  la- 
boring with  great  industry;  crows  croaking  early  in  tlie  morning;  the 
red-breast  and  other  birds  singing  early  on  the  higher  parts  of  the 
trees;  and  gnats  flying  in  columual  form  in  the  rays  of  the  setting 
sun,  are  all  indications  of  fine  weatlicr. 

AVEEDS.  Generally  speaking,  most  of  those  which  are  diflicult 
to  extirpate  b)-^  common  culture,  will  be  found  to  yield  to  constant 
yearly  crops  of  such  plants  as  grow  very  high  and  very  closelj*.  For 
this  purpose,  several  crops  of  hemp  in  succession  would  no  doubt  be 
found  sufficient  to  eradicate  almost  any  weed.  The  tall  oat's-geass, 
and  some  other  grasses  which  grow  very  high  and  thick,  would  also 
be  found  very  useful  lor  this  purpose. 

See  article  Grasses. 

Crops  of  carrots  and  other  roots,  which  require  close  weeding, 
would  also  be  found  of  excellent  use  in  eradicating  some  weeds.  It 
is  also  believed,  that  planting  grounds  with  potatoes  after  the  Irish 
method,  will  be  found  sufficient  to  smother  almost  every  kind  of 
weed. 

Sec  article  Potatoes. 

Something  shall  now  be  separately  said  of  some  of  those  weeds 
which  are  most  formidable  to  the  farmer. 

Tlie  Canada  thistle  flourishes  in  the  close  and  stiS'  soils ;  in  those 
which  are  dry  and  gravelly,  or  sandy,  it  does  not  prevail.  It  is  ex- 
tremely injurious  in  all  tillage.  In  lands,  however,  Avhich  have  been 
elosely  pastured  for  a  number  of  successive  years,  it  will  nearly  dis- 
appear; and  in  mowing  lands,  its  growth  will  be  constantly  retarded, 
and  lessened,  where  the  grasses  grow  luxuriantly,  particularly  those 
before  mentioned.     It  is,  however,  but  little  injurious  in  hay,  as  cat 


294  FARMER'S  AbSJSTAIST. 

tie  eat  it  freely;  and  they  are  particularly  fond  of  it  when  it  ha£  \ril> 
ed,  after  being  newly  mown.  In  the  business  of  soilina;  cattle,  it 
would,  therefore,  be  of  no  essential  injury;  while  it  would  gradually 
give  place  to  the  tall  and  luxuriant  growth  of  grasses  to  be  used  for 
that  purj)ose. 

See  article  Soiling. 

Pasturing,  cultivating  tall  grasses,  and  keeping  the  lands  highly  ma- 
nured, will  probably,  in  general,  be  found  the  most  effectual  method 
of  getting  rid  of  this  thistly,  unless  the  culture  of  {>otatoes,  before 
mentioned,  should  be  found  suflBcient  to  destroy  it-  On  dry  loams, 
however,  or  those  laid  dry  by  hollow  drains,  or  on  some  dr)'  marly 
soils,  the  jearly  culture  of  hemp  might,  in  many  instances,  be  profit- 
ably used  in  subduing  this  troublesome  weed. 

The  common  thistk  :  (carduu!>,)  is  easily  destroyed  by  mowing  it 
when  in  blossom,  or  by  pulling  or  digging  H  up  in  the  spring. 

The  tfcUojv  ivecd ;  (rttnunculus,)  prevails  mostly  in  weitish  mea- 
dows, where  it  roots  out  most  of  the  grass.  It  is,  however,  liighly 
relished  by  cattle  in  fodder,  though  its  product  mil  be  found  small 
when  compared  with  that  of  the  grasses  which  before  filled  its  place. 
When  eaten  green,  it  is  hot  and  acrid,  and  cattle  do  not  much 
relish  it. 

Hollow  draining  the  lands  where  they  are  wet,  and  manuring,  and 
cultivating  them  with  tall  grasses,  or  in  some  of  the  methods  before 
mentioned,  which  may  be  most  suitable  to  the  soil,  will  quickly  ex- 
tirpate this  weed. 

The  nhitc  jvced,  May-weed,  or  oi-tye  ;  (chrysanthemum,)  roots  out 
the  grasses  in  pastures  and  mowing  lands,  Avhere  the  ground  is  not 
very  strong;  but  where  it  is  well  enriched  with  suitable  manures  it 
■gives  way  to  the  grasses  in  turn.  It  never  makes  its  appearance  in  a 
Tery  strong  tough  sward.  Cattle  will  eat  it  in  hay,  if  it  be  cut  green, 
and  well  made,  but  they  dislike  it  in  pastures;  and  at  best  its  jiroduf ' 
is  but  small. 

To  extirpate  this  weed,  manure  the  land  strongly,  and  cultivate  . 
yearly  with  carrots,  hemp,  or  tall  grasses,  as  may  be  most  suitable  : 
the  soil.     Common  hoed  crops,  when  yearly  rei»eatetl,  will  also  r 
length  subdue  it.     But  where  it  gro  •  s  in  moist  meadows,  which  a: 
DOt  intended  to  be  hollow  drained,  the  best  mean?  of  destroying  it  ar. 
frequent  top-dressings  of  composts  sui'.»ble  to  the  soil,  (^scc  article 
Mam  RES.)  or  pulling  it  up  by  hand,  which  should  be  done  when  it  i> 
in  blossom. 


FARxMER'S  ASSISTANT.  295 

The  (laisif  prevails  mostly  in  upland  pastures ;  and  sometimes, 
where  the  soil  is  not  strong ;  it  chokes  the  crops  of  wheat,  flax,  &:c. 
It  is  very  readily  destroyed  by  yearly  hoed  crops,  by  hemp,  tall 
grasses,  Arc. 

The  wild  onion  prevails  most  in  Pennsylvania,  where  it  was  brought 
by  the  Swedes,  and  used  as  an  article  of  pasture.  It  is  very  injurious 
in  crops  of  wheat,  and  by  no  means  inoffensive  in  those  of  rye.  It  is 
also  bad  food  for  milch  cows,  as  it  imparts  its  taste  to  their  milk,  but- 
ter, and  cheese.  Yearly  hoed  crops,  hemp,  and  tall  grasses  Avill  gra- 
dually subdue  it.  Frequent  ploughings  and  harrowings,  when  the 
ground  is  dry,  is  also  beneficial.  Let  the  Irish  method  of  planting 
potatoes  be  also  tried. 

The  method  commonly  used  in  Pennsylvania  for  thinning  this 
weed,  is  one  or  two  hoed  crops,  and  then  oats  sowed  thickly.  Long 
pasturing  or  mowing  the  ground,  will  tend  gradually  to  extirpate 
them,  especially  if  the  growth  of  the  grass  be  luxuriant. 

The  growth  of  weeds  which  are  commonly  called  cockle  and  steen- 
critc,  are  often  injurious  to  crops  of  wheat  and  rye.  The  seeds  of 
these  weeds  are  usually  carried  into  the  fields  in  the  barn  dung,  init& 
crude  state.  Dung,  therefore,  which  contains  these  should  not  be  ap- 
plied to  the  summer  fallow,  but  carted  out  in  the  spring  and  used  for 
hoed  crops ;  in  this  way  the  seeds  will  vegetate  in  the  fall,  and  then 
the  young  growth  is  effectually  killed  by  ploughing  for  the  next 
spring  crops. 

Darnel;  (solium,)  says  i\Ir.  Deane,  "  sometimes  appears  among 
grain,  and  is  often  so  fruitful  as  to  spoil  a  crop.  The  seeds  of  it  re- 
semble grains  of  blasted  rye.  These  weeds  should  be  pulled  up  before 
they  go  to  seed ;  but  grain  for  sowing  may  be  mostly  cleared  of  the 
seeds  by  swimming  it  in  water." 

Jolinsrvort  grows  on  such  dry  soils  as  are  suitable  to  the  application 
of  gypsum ;  and  this  manure,  or  any  other  which  is  suitable  to  the 
soil,  when  pretty  plentifully  applied,  and  the  land  laid  down  with 
clover,  or  other  suitable  grass,  will  quickly  eradicate  every  vestige 
of  this  weed. 

Burdocks,  and  some  similar  weeds,  should  be  cut,  or  dug  up 
while  green. 

Quitch- s^r ass  is  considerably  injurious  to  the  growth  of  almost  every 
plant.  It  prevails  in  the  stiflfer  soils,  and  generally  in  the  IMohawk, 
and  some  other  intervales.  It  starts  afresh  wherever  its  large,  strong 
roots  are  out  with  the  plough  or  hoe,  particularly  when  the  soil  is 


296  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

rather  moist.  When  it  is  quite  dry,  the  roots  may  be  dragged  to  the 
surface  by  frequent  harrowings,  where  they  nill  perish;  and  this,  to- 
getiier  with  long  pasturing,  or  mowing  the  ground,  is  perhaps  Uie  only 
practicable  method  of  getting  rid  of  this  gra?*.  It  should  however  be 
observed,  that  this  is  a  tolerable  good  grass  for  either  pasturing  or 
mowing,  especially  when  olher  grasses  are  sown  to  mix  with  it. 

Sheep  are  much  better  than  any  other  catile  for  destroying  weeds 
by  pasturing. 

As  all  weeds  are  propagated  by  their  seeds,  none  should  be  suffer- 
ed to  go  to  seed.  This  remark  is  no  less  applicable  to  the  weeds  be- 
fore enumerated,  than  to  the  numerous  class  of  biennials  which  com- 
monly infest  the  fields.  All  weeds,  by  being  suffered  to  grow,  ex- 
haust the  soil.  The  same  ground,  therelore,  which  is  kept  clear  of 
weeds  will  much  easier  retain  its  fertility  than  that  which  is  suffered 
to  become  full  of  their  seeds.  Generally  speaking,  any  given  quan- 
tity of  weeds  growing  with  a  crop  lessens  its  proiluct  in  proportion  to 
the  weight  of  the  greon  weeds  with  that  of  the  growing  crop.  Farm- 
ers should  therefore  be  extremely  careful  in  keeping  all  weeds  out  of 
their  grounds,  and  in  destroying  the  common  biennials  as  fast  as  they 
appear,  while  the  ground  is  bearing  crops  :  And,  in  regard  to  those 
perennials,  before  enumerated,  and  all  others  which  may  infest  the' 
lands,  the  prevention  of  their  growths  is  generally  infinitely  easier 
than  their  extermination,  after  they  have  got  fooling  in  the  soil. 
When,  therefore,  the  farmer  sees  new  weeds  start  up  in  his  land,  let 
him  immediately  extirpate  them,  either  by  taking  them  out  of  the 
ground,  or  by  smothering  them  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  earth, 
straW:  chip-dung,  or  other  rubbish;  and  thus  he  will  find  that  a  pen- 
ny's worth  of  trouble  spent  in  the  prevention  of  the  disease,  is  worth 
a  pound  spent  in  the  cure. 

For  destroying  the  common  biennial  weeds,  see  article  Summer 
Fallowing. 
WEEVIL.     See  article  Insects. 
WELL.     See  articles  Water  and  Pasture. 
WHEAT  ;  (Triticum.)     Under  different  articles  of  this  work,  to 
wit: — Change  of  Crops,  Change  of  Seeds,  Drill,  Fallowing, 
Green-Dressing,  Gypsum,  Hessian-Fly,  Harrowing,  Harvest- 
ing, Mildew,  Soiling,  Sowing,  Smut,  Threshing,  and  WatePv- 
Fubrowing,  considerable  has  been  said  which  regards  the  culture  of 
Avheat.  and  need  not  here  be  repeated. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  297 

There  are  several  species  of  this  grain,  such  as  the  spring  wheat, 
and  of  the  different  kinds  of  winter  wheat ;  the  bald,  the  bearded  the 
cone,  the  Polish,  and  the  Smifrna  nhcat,  6cc.  The  latter  has  a  central 
ear,  with  several  smaller  lateral  ones,  which  spring  from  the  lower  end 
of  the  large  one.  It  requires  a  rich  soil,  and  it  is  probable,  that  in 
this  country,  the  horse-hoeing  husbandry  of  3Ir.  Tull,  {Sec  New 
HoR3E-HoEi>-G  HusBAXDRY.)  would  be  more  suitable  for  it  than  for 
any  other  kind. 

"VTiDter  wheat,  in  this  state,  and  in  some  more  southerly,  will  grow 
on  almost  every  dry  soil  that  is  sufficiently  rich.  Very  sandy,  and 
very  gravelly  soils,  are,  however,  the  most  unsuitable.  Dry  red  loams, 
with  a  trifle  of  clay  in  them,  are  perhaps  the  best.  Of  the  old  states, 
the  best  wheat,  and  the  greatest  crops,  are  raised  in  what  are  called 
the  middle  states.  Mr.  Gregg,  of  Pennsylvania,  lately  raised  sixteen 
hundred  Imshels  from  forty  acres,  and  crops  still  larger  have  been 
raised  in  Virginia.  In  this  state,  the  greatest  products  are  not  quite 
so  large,  and  the  eastern  states  are  still  less  favorable  for  ihe  growth 
of  this  grain. 

The  time  for  sowing  wheat  probably  depends  much  on  previous 
habit.  Thus,  if  it  were  sown  a  number  of  successive  years  by  the 
the  middle  of  August,  and  then  the  time  of  sowing  were  changed,  at 
once,  to  October,  the  crop  would  probably  be  much  lighter  on  that 
account ;  yet  where  wheat  has  become  habituated  to  be  sown  late  it 
will  do  tolerably  well.  The  later  it  is  sown,  however,  the  more  seed 
h  requisite.  When  early  sown,  a  bushel  to  the  acre  is  sufficient ;  but 
when  sown  later,  a  bushel  and  an  half,  or  more,  may  be  necessary.  In 
Ensland  they  sow  a  much  larger  quantity  than  this  ;  but  it  is  believed 
to  be  an  useless  espemUture  of  seed.  Let  the  farmer,  however,  try 
experiments  in  this  way,  by  sowing  two,  three,  and  four  bushels  to  the 
acre,  and  if  he  finds  himself  well  repaid,  by  a  suitable  increase  of  his 
crops,  let  him  persevere  io  sowing  that  quantity  of  seed  which  he  finds 
most  advantageous. 

Drillinff  in  wheat  will  save  as  much  as  one  third  of  the  seed.  If 
wheat  is  found  to  grow  larger  in  this  way  than  when  sown  in  the 
broad-cast,  the  gain  may  be  much  greater.  If  it  be  soaked  twenty- 
four  hours  in  lye  or  brine,  with  a  proper  mixture  of  saltpetre,  its  sraut- 
tincss  will  be  prevented,  which  in  many  instances  may  be  a  great 
saving ;  and  according  to  Mr.  Johnson,  the  saltpetrp  will  make  a  very 
considerable  addition  to  the  crop. 

See  article  Sowinh. 

38 


298  F AHMER'S  ASMSTANT. 

Thus,  by  paying  attention  to  these  particulars,  and  some  others, 
the  clear  profits  of  a  crop  of  wheat  may  perhaps.be  doubled. 

Seed  wheat  should  always  be  run  through  a  screen  before  it  is  sown, 
to  take  out  the  seeds  of  cockle,  dri|)s,  and  other  weeds  which  infest 
tiic  crop.  Care  should  also  be  taken  not  to  let  the  seed  get  any  mix- 
ture of  rye  iu  it ;  as  the  cutting  of  this  out  requires  considerable  labor, 
and  at  tiie  same  time  lessens  the  crop.  The  English  farmers  say,  that 
seed  should  never  be  taken  of  wheat  which  has  grown  on  sandy  land, 
but  from  that  which  has  grown  on  soils  most  natural  to  it.  The 
changing  of  seed  should  also  be  atteni!ed  to,  as  this  grain  is  found  to 
jlegenerate  if  this  be  not  done.  The  summer  wheat  which  is  brought 
from  Canada,  is  found  to  produce  much  larger  crops  in  this  county, 
f Herkimer, J  than  that  wliich  has  been  sown  here  for  some  time. 
Wheat  tliat  is  carried  to  a  climate  much  more  northerly  than  that  iu 
which  it  has  been  long  sown,  will  not  answer  well,  as  it  will  be  too 
late  in  ri|»ening. 

The  best  preparations  for  a  crop  of  wheat  are  summer-fallowing,  or 
a  clover  sward  turned  under  and  the  wheat  sown  on  it.  The  latter 
is  good  culture.  The  former  ought  never  to  constitute  a  part  of  a  good 
system  of  farming,  on  account  of  its  additional  expense,  unless  it  be 
to  recruit  exhausted  lands,  or  to  destroy  weeds.  But  Avhere  lands 
require  to  be  fallowed  let  the  work  be  done  effectually,  by  rejieated 
ploughings  and  harrowings,  in  order  that  the  ground  be  enriched,  and 
the  seeds  of  weeds  destroyed.  Beside  clover,  the  summer  crops 
which  are  found  best  to  precede  a  crop  of  wheat,  are  turnips,  peas, 
vetches,  and  barley  will  do  tolerably  well,  but  let  Iheground  be 
ploughed  up  immediately  after  the  crop  is  taken  off.  A  potaloe  crop 
is  also  very  gooil,  provided  it  be  got  off  the  ground  sufticieutly  early 
for  sow  lOg  the  wheat.  Indian  corn,  where  the  ground  is  in  good  heart, 
will  do  well,  by  cutting  up  the  crop  while  green,  and  selling  it  up  iu 
shocks  to  ripen, 

AVhere  wheat  has  lodged  so  as  to  fall  flat  on  the  ground,  the  better 
way  is  to  harvest  it  immediately ;  for  in  that  situation  ii  will  derive 
no  further  benefit  from  the  earth,  or  from  the  air;  whereas  if  it  be 
cut,  and  laid  to  dry,  the  seeds  will  derive  nourishment  from  the  stalk  ; 
and  though  they  be  small  they  will  be  as  large  as  they  wouM  other- 
Avise  have  been.  perha|)s  larger,  and  at  the  same  time  will  make  much 
better  flour.  The  treatment  in  this  case  ought  lo  be  the  same  as  in 
case  of  mildew. 

Sec  article  Mildcw. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  299 

It  is  believed,  that  there  is  nothing  gained  by  letting  ^vheat  stand 
till  it  is  fully  riiJe,  thai  is  till  the  heads  turn  down,  before  it  is  har- 
vested. If  it  stands  so  long  considerable  will  be  shelled  out  before  it 
is  got  into  the  barn;  and  even  if  the  bulk  should  in  this  case  be  great- 
er, still  the  weight  may  not  be  increased;  and  as  wheat  is  now  sold 
by  -weight,  not  by  the  bushel;  and  as  it  is  known  that  the  best  flour 
is  made  from  the  earliest  harvested  wheat ;  the  farmer,  from  these 
considerations,  may  i)robably  be  the  gainer  by  commencing  his  har- 
vest considerably  earlier  than  the  usual  time.  In  this  ^vay  too  he  will 
be  less  in  danger  of  having  his  wheat  grown  by  long  continued  rains  ; 
lor  it  is  found,  that  wheat  which  is  harvested  early,  is  less  liable  to 
grow  than  that  which  is  cut  late.  Probably,  that  which  is  design- 
ed for  seed,  ought,  on  this  account,  to  be  harvested  last,  as  it  ^vill  ve- 
getate more  readily  when  late  harvested. 

As  a  matter  of  curiosity,  it  may  be  observed,  that  by  frequently 
splitting  the  plants  of  wheat,  and  setting  each  part  by  itself,  they  may 
be  greatly  multiplied.  Thus  by  sowing  the  wheat  in  August  you  may 
split  it,  after  it  has  branched  out  into  a  number  of  parts,  and  this  may 
be  again  repealed  in  September,  and  repeated  once  or  twice  again  in 
the  spring,  until  in  this  w  ay  you  may  make  one  seed  produce  more 
than  half  a  bushel  of  grain. 

AVhere  wlieat  is  likely  to  grow  too  large  the  best  way  is  to  feed  it 
down  in  the  spring  for  si;ch  length  of  time  as  may  be  thought  requisite, 
and  in  this  way  it  will  grow  up  with  a  stronger  stalk,  and  be  less  lia- 
ble to  loilge. 

See  article  Rve,  for  a  very  extraordinary  crop  that  was  raised  in 
this  ^\'ay. 

If  the  wheat  cannot  be  conveniently  fed  off,  let  it  be  mowed  off 
close,  as  often  as  may  be  found  necessary,  w  hich  will  ansAver  the  same 
purpose. 

In  England  experiments  have  been  made  of  transplanting  wheat  in 
the  spring,  by  means  of  which  the  crops  proved  very  gootl,  and  a  great 
deal  of  seed  was  saved.  This  might  be  found  peculiarly  i<seful  in  wet 
lands  thrown  up  in  ridges  in  the  sf)ring.  The  expense  of  such  culture 
woubl.  [>robalily,  however,  be  too  great  in  this  country,  and  therefore, 
need  not  be  minutely  described. 

Barberry-bushes  or  cherry-trees,  planted  in  wheat  fields,  will  make 
the  wheat  growing  near  them  blast. 

Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  made 
mellow  :  and  there  is  little  or  bo  danger  of  its  being  too  rich  for  thi? 


30Q  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

crop.  It  grows  best  on  rich  new  land?,  or  on  lands  which  have  beeu 
well  manured  and  borne  Indian  corn,  or  pot;itoes,  the  preceding  year* 
The  qualify  of  this  wheat  is  inferior  to  that  of  winter  wheat,  and  the 
crop  is  usually  smaller.  It  i?,  however,  cultivated  with  more  success 
than  winter  wheat  in  much  of  the  higher  lands  where  the  snows  fall 
deep  in  the  northerly  parts  of  this  state.  The  requisite  quantity  of 
seed  to  the  acre  is  about  one  and  a  half  bushels.  Like  barley,  it  is 
round  to  degenerate  very  quickly  ;  and  for  this  reason,  new  supplies  of 
seed  from  Canada,  or  some  more  northerly  climate,  are  found  to  be 
frequently  requisite. 

A  principal  difficulty  in  raising  winter  wheat  on  the  high  lands  of 
the  northerly  parts  of  this  state,  where  the  snows  fall  very  deep,  is, 
thit  fhey  lie  so  longin  the  8[)ring  that  the  wheat  being  then,  from  the 
warmth  of  the  jirouud,  inclined  to  vegetate,  is  prevented  from  this  by 
reitson  of  the  snow  which  lies  upon  it,  and  being  thus  excluded  from 
the  air,  it  dies  of  course.  The  most  etTectual  remedy  against  this  has 
hern  round  to  feed  oflFthe  wheat  closely  in  the  fall,  which  it  would 
seem,  prevents  it  from  starting  in  the  spring  until  such  time  as  the 
snous  have  dissolved. 

VVHKEZiNG.  A  disease  of  horses  commonly  called  broken 
wind — caused  by  surfeits — violent  exercise  when  the  belly  is  full — by 
being  rid  into  cold  water  when  very  warm — or,  from  obstinate  colds 
not  cured. 

For  the  cure,  Dr.  Bracken  advises,  that  the  horse  should  have  good 
nourishment,  much  grain,  and  little  hay;  and  that  the  water  given 
him  to  flrink  daily  have  a  solution  of  half  an  ounce  of  saltpetre,  and 
two  drachms  of  sal  ammoniac.  It  is  said  that  the  hay  made  of  white 
weed  will  cure  this  disorder. 

WHITE  WEEH.     This  weed  has  various  names,  such  as  &t//r.v> 
eye.  May-weed,  &x.  &c. 
Sec  article  Weeds. 

Wli^LO VV  ;  (Salix.)  There  are  varieties  of  this  tree,  though  noi 
many  that  were  found  in  this  country.  The  weeping-willow  and 
Bome  other  kinds  are  imported. 

borne  kinds  of  this  tree  grow  so  rapidly  as  to  be  valuable  to  plant 
for  fuel.  The  twigs  of  one  kind  are  used  for  making  baskets,  &c. 
Oiher  kinds  are  good  for  mnking  hedges  in  wet  lands.  Perhaps  the 
shrubby  kind  that  grows  along  the  banks  of  many  of  our  streams 
would  be  veiy  good  for  this  i-Mirpoae. 

I'or  mjikiiiti  'he  li<dge,  either  in  the  bank  of  a  ditch,  or  otherwise, 
Blakes  of  a  proper  length  are  cut  and  set  a  good  depth  iu  the  ground. 


FAT^MER'S  ASSISTANT.  301 

about  a  foot  apart,  and  they  will  take  root  and  grow,  while  new  twigs 
sprouting  out  Ironi  every  part  soon  forms  them  into  a  thick  bushy 
hfdffp.  This,  when  sufficiently  grown  is  to  be  treated  as  other 
hedges. 

Sec  article  Hedges. 

In  Great  Britain,  sonle  of  the  larger  sorts  of  this  tree  are  also  raised 
for  buihiing  timber.  In  this  case,  says  Mr.  Miller,  they  are  planted 
in  rows,  and  stand  six  feet  apart  each  way,  and  are  trimmed  up  the 
requisite  hei-rht.  When  they  become  too  thick,  every  otlier  tree,  in 
each  row,  is  tnken  aAvay.  They  may  also  be  planted  along  the  banks 
of  ditclies  for  this  purpose.  The  sets  are  seven  or  eight  feet  long 
whed  planted.  The  same  author  observes,  that  every  kind  of  willow 
is  easily  raised  from  sets  or  cuttings,  which  readily  take  root,  either 
in  the  spring  or  fall. 

WINDGALLS.  These  are  flatulent  swellings  on  the  bodies  of 
horses,  but  most  commonly  they  are  seated  on  both  sides  of  the  back 
sinew  above  the  fetlocks  of  this  animal :  Some  times  they  are  in  the 
joints  and  tendons.  They  are  generally  filled  with  air  and  thin  wa- 
tery matter.  Where  they  appear  in  the  interstices  of  the  large  mus- 
cles, which  then  appear  blown  up  like  bladders,  they  are  principally 
filled  with  air,  and  may  be  safely  opeucd,  and  treated  as  a  common 
wound. 

When  they  first  appear,  they  are  usually  cured  with  restringents, 
and  bandages  drawn  very  tightly  round  them;  for  which  purpose  let 
the  swelling  be  bathed  twice  a  day  with  vinegar,  or  verjuice,  or  fo- 
mented with  a  decoction  of  oak-bark,  pomegranate  and  allum,  boiled 
in  verjuice,  and  let  the  bandage  which  binds  the  windgall  be  soaked 
in  the  same. 

If  this  should  fail,  the  swelling  may  be  drawn  ofif  by  blistering,  and 
applying  the  blistering  ointment,  repeating  it  at  times,  till  the  humor 
is  all  drawn  off.  Some,  however,  cut  open  these  swellings,  wherever 
they  be  situated,  and  treat  them  as  a  wound.  But,  perhaps,  where 
they  are  in  the  joints,  the  blistering  is  the  safer  remedy,  as  the  joints 
may  be  stiffened  by  imprudent  management. 

WIND-MACHINERY.  The  saving  of  labor  by  the  use  of  the 
winds,  seems  to  have  been  but  little  attended  to;  and  yet  it  is  be- 
lieved that  great  advantages  might  be  derived  to  the  farmer  from 
this  source. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  an  apartment  was  made  under  the  roof 
«f  the  barn,  at  one  end,  in  the  middle  of  -which  should  be  properly 


302  far:mer'S  assistant. 

fixed,  an  upright  shaft,  extendics^  up  through  the  highest  part  of  the 
roof,  with  lour  horizontal  arms  on  the  upper  end,  and  on  these  sails  fix- 
ed for  turning  the  shaft  when  ilic  winds  should  hloiv. — Could  there 
be  any  doubt,  but  that  this  could  be  made  to  turn  different  kinds  of 
maehines  to  be  used  for  different  purposes. 

In  this  war  a  threshing-machine  and  a  corn-shelling  machine  might 
be  moved  with  a  great  saving  of  manual  labor.  The  cutting  of  straw 
and  hay  for  feeding  cattle,  could  thus  be  almost  entirely  performed, 
and  the  no  less  important  lousiness  of  grinding  different  kinds  of  grain 
ibr  feeding  and  fatting  of  cattle  could  be  performed  with  er^ual  ease^ 
Perhaps  also  the  breaking  and  cleaning  of  flax  and  hemp  could  be 
executed  in  this  way  to  advantage. 

The  raising  of  a  constant  supply  of  water  from  wells,  for  supplying 
cattle,  is  also  easily  performed  in  this  way ;  and  it  is  a  matter  ot  no 
difficult  invention  so  to  contrive  the  machhiery  that  it  will  stop  raising 
water  when  the  trough  into  which  it  is  emptied,  shall  be  filled  to  a 
certain  height.  Churnin;  may  also  be  thus  performed  with  a  very 
small  expense,  when  the  wind  will  answer. 

It  is  but  a  triSing  objection  against  all  this,  that  the  winds  are  in- 
constant, and  that  tliey  blow  unsteadily.  The  work  required  to  be 
thus  performed  requires  no  great  steadiness  of  operation;  and  days 
can  always  be  chosen  for  performing  most  of  these  labors  when  the 
wuifN  Mow  most  steadily. 

The  machinery  for  some  of  the  purposes  before  mentioned  sliould 
be  so  contrived  as  to  be  turned  by  hand  when  the  winds  should  not 
«erve.  It  is  immaterial  what  quarter  the  winds  come  from  where  the 
sails  are  fixed  on  a  horii'ontal  wheel,  as  above  intended,  as  the  w  heel 
will  still  turn  the  same  way.  The  sails  may  be  of  very  cheap  mate- 
rials, and  the  cost  of  the  whole  machinery  need  not  be  much.  Any 
minute  description  of  the  machinery  is  here  omitted,  because  verbal 
descriptions  of  such  are  necessarily  prolix,  and  at  best  diificult  to  be 
uoderstoo<l :  and  because,  any  one  wishing  to  test  the  efficacy  o "  this 
method  of  saving  labor,  need  not  be  long  ignorant  of  the  best  means  of 
putting  his  wishes  into  execution. 

It  is  believed  that  Pasmore's  machine  for  cutting  straw  is  the  best 
that  is  used  in  Great-Britain.  His  machine  for  crushing  diiTerent 
kinds  of  grain  between  rollers,  is  also  good,  as  being  very  expeditious ; 
but  probably  those  machines  which  grind  the  grain,  in  the  manner 
th;it  coffee  is  ground  in  small  hand-mills,  are  the  l>est.  Descriptions 
and  plates  exhibiting  his  machines,  as  well  as  those  of  Salmon's  and 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  303 

M'Doogal's  straw-cutters,  may  be  seeu  in  a  new  British  work,  which 
has  been  ofteu  mentioned  in  this,  called  "  The  Complete  Grazier.''^ — 
Either  of  these  machines  might  be  easily  adapted  to  the  purpose  of 
being  turned  by  wind. 

WlrsE.  The  presses  used  for  making  this  liquor  are  similar  to 
our  screw-presses  for  making  cider,  though  they  are  executed  with 
much  neater  workmanship. 

To  make  gootl  wine,  the  grapes  of  the  same  vine  should  be  gathered 
at  different  times.  The  first  should  be  ot  the  ripest  clusters ;  and  let 
them  be  cut  close  to  the  fruit  to  avoid  the  taste  of  the  stalks.  The 
green  and  rotten  grapes  are  to  be  rejected. 

In  due  season  the  secoml  gathering  takes  place,  when  all  that  are 
ripe  and  sound  are  taken  as  before.  The  same  may  be  observed  of 
the  last  gathering,  the  grapes  of  which  will  be  the  poorest.  To  make 
wine  in  the  greatest  perfection,  however,  the  grapes  are  all  strijiped 
from  the  stems  before  they  are  put  into  the  vat. 

Wines  of  different  colours  are  made  from  the  same  grape.  The 
French  make  their  white  and  red  wines  from  the  black  grape. 

To  make  white  wine,  grapes  sutlicient  lor  a  pressing  are  gathered 
early  in  a  damp,  misty  morning,  while  the  dew  is  on.  This  increases 
the  quantity  of  wine,  but  rendeis  it  weaker.  When  the  sun  comes 
out  warm  the  gathering  is  discontinued. 

The  grapes  gathered  are  carefully  carried  in  panniers  on  horses,  to 
the  press,  into  which  they  are  immediately  put,  and  the  first  pressing 
is  given  without  delay  ;  which  should  be  gentle,  for  fear  of  discolorio<^ 
the  liquor.  The  w  ine  from  this  pressing  is  the  most  delicate,  but  not 
the  strongest. 

After  the  first  pressing,  the  pre^s  is  raised,  the  scattering  grapes  are 
laid  on  the  cake,  and  the  second  pressing  is  given,  in  which  more 
force  is  used  than  before.  The  second  running  is  but  little  inferior 
to  the  first  in  flavor,  or  colour,  while  it  is  stronger  and  will  keep  lon<^- 
er.     Sometimes  the  wine  of  these  two  pressings  are  mixed  together. 

After  these  pressings,  the  sides  of  the  cake  are  cut  down  perpendi- 
cularly with  a  steel  spade,  so  far  as  they  exceed  the  upper  part  of  the 
press  that  is  let  <lowo  on  the  cake.  The  cuttings  are  laid  on  the  top 
of  the  cake,  and  the  third  pressing,  which  is  called  the  first  cuttino-,  is 
given.  The  juice  pressed  out  at  tliis  time  is  excellent.  A  second 
and  third  cutting  is  in  like  manner  given  the  cake,  with  pressings,  till 
the  juice  ceases  to  rim. 


304  FARIMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

The  liquor  of  Ihe  cuttings  becomes  gradually  more  red  from  the 
liquor  contained  in  the  skin  of  the  grapes.  The  wine*  of  these  dif- 
ferent cuttings  are  collected  se[)aratel)r,  and  afterwards  mixed,  ac- 
cording as  they  contain  the  quality  that  is  wanted. 

The  pressings  for  the  white  wine  should  be  performed  quickly, 
that  the  grapes  may  not  have  time  to  heat,  and  that  the  liquor  may  not 
remain  too  long  on  the  murk. 

In  making  red  wines  of  the  same  grapes,  they  are  to  be  gathered 
when  the  sun  shines  the  hottest.  They  are  to  be  selected  and  gather- 
ed in  the  manner  before  directed. 

When  brought  home,  as  before,  they  are  mashed  in  a  vat,  and  are 
then  to  lie  in  the  liquor  for  a  length  of  time,  which  must  depend  on 
the  heat  of  the  weather,  the  flavor  of  the  must.,  and  the  height  of  co- 
lour intended  to  be  given.  They  are  to  be  stirred  frequently,  the 
better  to  raise  a  fermentation  and  redden  the  liquor. 

The  authors  of  the  "  Maison  Rustique"  say,  that  for  the  Cotdange 
nine,  four  hours  is  sufficient  for  the  grapes  to  lie  in  the  liquor,  and 
that  for  ihe  Burgundy  wine  a  whole  day  should  be  allowed.  Others 
allow  a  much  greater  length  of  time.  Perhaps  this  point  will  be  best 
ascertained  by  experience  in  different  climates. 

When  the  tnust  or  liquor,  has  lain  as  long  on  the  husks  in  the  vats 
as  is  thought  proper,  it  is  poured  off,  strained  and  put  into  casks. 
Afterwards  the  murk,  or  remainder  of  the  grapes  in  the  vat,  is  put 
into  the  press,  and  undergoes  the  pressings  and  cuttings  before  men- 
tioned. The  liquor  thus  obtained,  especially  if  the  pressing  be  so 
hard  as  to  crack  the  seeds  of  the  grapes,  has  a  stronger  body  than  the 
first  running;  but  has  not  its  fine  high  delicate  tiavor.  Some  of  it 
is,  however,  frequently  mixed  with  the  other  wines  to  make  them 
keep  better. 

Some  pour  water  on  the  murk  in  the  vat,  after  the  liquor  is  drawn 
off,  which  should  be  done  without  delay  lest  the  murk  sour,  and  leave 
it  in  this  situation  till  they  find  the  water  pretty  well  coloured,  and 
judge  that  it  has  incor|)orated  most  of  the  remaining  strength  of  the 
murk ;  they  then  draw  off  the  water  and  press  out  the  murk  as  dry  as 
possible,  and  mix  the  liquor  thus  pressed  out  with  the  water,  and  bar- 
rel it.  It  will  keep  no  longer  than  the  following  winter,  but  is  brisk 
and  pleasant  while  it  keeps  good. 

The  vuirk  is  used  to  mend  w  ines,  whether  old  or  new,  which  want 
either  colour  or  strength.     They  are  to  be  turned  out  of  the  casks  on 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  30j 

the  iiturk^  after  the  must  has  been  drawn  off,  aud  then  v.ell  stirred  up, 
and  let  stand  twenty-four  hours,  if  new  wine,  or  twelve  hours  if  oldw 
When  a  sufficient  colour  is  thus  given  the  wine,  and  it  is  no  longer 
too  sweet,  but  agreeable  to  drink,  draw  it  off,  barrel  it,  and  put  the 
mur/c  to  the  press.  New  and  old  wines  are,  however,  not  to  be  mixed 
in  this  operation. 

The  unripeued  grapes  that  were  rejected  at  former  gatherings,  are 
to  hang  till  they  become  a  little  frost-bitten,  and  may  then  be  made 
info  wine  which  will  answer  to  mix  with  other  coarse  red  wines. 

When  the  murk  has  been  lully  pressed  it  will  still  yield,  when 
diluted  with  water,  fermented  and  distilled,  a  spirit  for  medical  and 
domestic  uses. 

In  some  [)art3  of  Germanj',  where  the  grape  does  not  come  to  full 
maturity,  the  makers  of  wine  have  stoves  in  their  wine  cellars,  by 
which  they  are  kept  warm  during  the  fermentation  of  their  wines,  and 
this,  by  heightening  the  fermentation,  meliorates  them,  and  renders 
them  more  fine.  Exposing  the  casks  to  the  sun  will  have  the  same 
effect  in  wines  that  are  too  acrid  to  ferment  sufficiently. 

The  people  of  Champaigne  and  Burgundy  supply  the  want  of  fer- 
mentation, or  of  an  insufficient  one,  in  their  late  made  wines,  by  roll- 
in?  the  casks.  After  drawing  the  wines  off  from  the  first  lees,  three 
weeks  after  being  first  put  up,  they  roll  the  casks  backward  and  for- 
ward, five  or  six  times  a  day,  for  four  or  five  days  successively;  thea 
two  or  three  times  a  day  for  three  or  four  days  ;  then  twice  a  day  foe 
four  days  more ;  then  once  a  day  for  a  week,  and  afterwards  once  in 
four  or  live  days.  This  rolling  is  continued  altogether  for  about  sis 
weeks  where  the  grapes  were  pressed  very  green,  but  a  less  time  if 
they  were  tolerably  ripe. 

The  finest  wines  ^\i[{  work  the  soonest,  and  the  fermentation  will 
take  ten  or  twelve  days,  according  to  the  kind  of  wine,  and  the  season 
of  the  year.  Those  that  are  backward  in  fermenting  may  be  quicken- 
ed by  puttini!;  into  them  a  little  of  the  froth  or  yeast  that  works  from 
others.  During  fermentation,  the  bung-holes  of  the  casks  are  to  be 
left  open,  and  should  be  closed  when  it  at)ates,  which  is  known  by  the 
froth  ceasing  to  rise  so  fast  as  before.  'J'he  cask  is  also  then  to  be  fill- 
ed to  within  two  inches  of  the  top,  and  a  vent  hole  is  to  be  left  open 
to  carry  off  all  th:il  is  thrown  up  by  fcrllier  fermentation.  The  filling 
of  the  cask  should  be  regularly  done  every  two  days  for  about  twelve 
days,  in  order  that  the  foulness  thrown  up  by  the  continued  fermenta- 
tion may  be  thrown  out  at  the  vent  hole,  or  it  wiH  fall  bacli  intp  the 

:}9 


"tiOO  FAKMEK'S  ASSISTANT. 

wine  and  nreveni  its  becomirMr  clear.  After  this  the  cask  should  b* 
filled  to  u  iihin  an  inch  ol  ihe  Ijung  e\  ery  fifth  or  sixth  day  for  a  month, 
and  then  once  a  fortnijjht  for  three  months  longer.  When  the  fer- 
mentation is  enfh-cly  over,  the  casks  are  (o  be  filled  u[»,  and  this  is  to 
be  rejieaietl  once  a  mooth  as  long  as  they  remain  in  the  cellar,  in  or- 
der to  prevent  the  wane  growing  flat  and  hea\'j'.  They  should  be  fill- 
ed ivith  wine  of  the  Minie  kind  uhich  they  contain,  which  may  be  kept 
in  bottle*  for  the  parpose,  an<i  the  vent  hole  should  be  stopped  when 
the  fermentaliort  is  over. 

The  first  drawine  off  from  lire  lees  is  done  about  the  middle  of  De- 
cember, and  the  casks  containing  the  liquor  drawn  off  should  stand 
without  the  least  disturbance  by  shaking  until  the  midtik  of  Febru- 
ary, when  the  liquor  should  be  again  drawn  off'  into  other  casks.  If 
there  be  then  still  so  much  lees  as  to  endanger  their  eonlraciing  a 
putrid  taint,  let  the  wine  be  again  drawn  off*  in  due  season.  Some- 
times it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  racking  several  times  ;  but  let 
the  casks  be  kept  lull,  and  let  no  wines  of  dissimilar  qualities  be 
mixed. 

The  lees  are  (o  be  collected  together,  and  after  settKng,  the  thinner 
part  may  hedirtilled. 

•  Brandy  i»  often  added  to  wine  when  alK)ut  to  be  transported,  to  pre- 
vent any  further  fermentation.  Fumigating  the  casks  with  burnt 
brimstone  will  answer  this  puri>ose  better:  hut  it  is  said  this  will  de- 
stroy the  red  colour  of  wines.  The  colonrs  of  wine,  are,  however, 
mostly  artificial.  A  deep  yellow  may  be  made  by  burnt  sugar,  and  a 
deep  red  \xj  red-wood,  elder-berries,  Azc. 

I  Turbid  wines  are  fined  by  isinglass,  by  putting  a  pound  or  two  of 
fresh  !doo«ly  meat  into  them,  and  by  other  means  pointed  out  under 
article  Cider. 

«.  Where  ivine  has  become  sour,  let  some  salt  of  tartar  be  mixed  with 
it,  just  bt-fore  it  is  used,  which  will  neutralize  the  acid. 

In  summer,  cool,  clear  days,  with  northerly  winds,  are  the  best 
times  for  drawing  off  wines  to  prevent  their  fretting  or  frothing. 

For  making  currant  ivinc,  sec  article  Ci  rrams. 

Gooi^ihcrn/  truu  b  made  in  the  same  mauoer  as  csrrant  wine. 

Raisin  nvic  is  made  as  follows:  Take  thirtj'  gallons  of  clear  rain 
or  river  water,  and  put  it  into  a  vessel  that  will  hold  a  third  more; 
axld  a  hundred  weight  of  ^Malaga  raisins  picked  from  the  stalks;  mir 
the  whole  well  together,  and  cover  it  over  partly,  but  not  entirely. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  507 

with  a  linen  cloth,  and  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place,  if  the  season  be 
act  warm.  It  will  soon  ferment,  ahd  must  he  well  stirred  about  twice 
in  twenty-four  hours,  for  twelve  or  fourteen  day?-  By  this  time,  if 
the  liquor  has  lost  its  sweetness,  ami  if  the  fermentation  has  nearly 
abated,  which  will  be  perceived  by  the  raisins  lying  quietly  at  the 
bottom,  the  liquor  mast  be  strained  off,  and  the  juice  of  the  raisins 
pressed  out,  first  by  hand  and  afterwards  by  a  press,  which  may  easily 
be  contrived,  by  having  two  boards  and  weights  laid  on  t-he  upper- 
most. Ail  the  liquor  is  then  to  be  put  into  a  good  sound  wine  cask, 
Tsrell  dried  and  warmed,  together  with  eight  [lounds  of  sugar,  and  a  lit- 
tle yeast;  except  that  aJittle  of  the  wine  should  be  reserved  in  bot- 
tles, to  be  afterwards  added  during  the  feriftentation,  which  will  take 
pla«e  again.  During  this  second  fermentation  the  cask  must  be  kei>t 
nearly  fuH,  so  that  the  froth  or  yeast  will  run  out  of  the  bung-hole. 
When  the  fermentation  has  ceased,  which  will  be  at  the  end  of  a 
month,  the  cask  is  to  be  stepped  tight  and  kept  a  year,  or  more,  and 
then  bottled  off. 

This  wine  wril  be  very  good  at  the  end  of  a  year  and  a  half,  but 
will  improve  much  by  being  kept  four  or  five  years ;  as  it  will  thea 
be  equal  to  any  of  the  strong  cordial  foreign  wines,  and  by  proper  sub- 
stances, to  give  it  a  color  and  flavor,  it  may  be  made  to  resemble 
trhem. 

This  is  the  most  perfect  of  artificial  win^,  but  olliers  may  be  made 
clieaper;  such,  for  instance,  as  supplying  the  place  of  every  four 
pounds  of  raisins  by  one  pound  of  sugar,  so  that  only  a  fo«f(h  of  the 
quantity  of  raisins  above  mentioned  may  be  required ;  or  by  adding  a 
proportion  of  well  rectified  whiskey  to  the  ca?k  when  closed,  in  which 
.  case  less  raisins  and  less  sugar  would  be  requisite. 

Any  kind  of  large  raieins  will  answer  as  well  as  Malaga ;  but  the 
thinner  the  skin,  and  the  sweeter  the  pulp,  the  better  the  wine  will 

prove  to  be. 

To'make  Po?»wi«  wwf.— The  directions  published  by  Mr.  Coopei, 
of  Jersey,  for  making  a  wine  of  cider  and  other  ingredients,  which 
may  properly  be  called  Poimna  ivinc,  are  as  follows :  Take  cider  of 
the  best  running  of  the  cheese,  and  of  the  best  quality,  and  add  to  i* 
as  much  honey  as  will  make  the  li(iuor  bear  an  egg;  strain  the  liquor 
through  a  cloth  as  you  pour  it  into  the  cask;  fill  the  cask  full,  with 
the  addition  of  two  gallons  of  French  brandy  to  a  barrel;  set  it  away 
in  a  cool  place,  with  the  bung-hole  open,  to  ferment ;  as  the  fcj-menta- 


308  FARMER'S  ASSISTA.NT. 

tioo  proceed?,  it  will  throw  out  constderalHe  froth  aod  filth,  anJ  (a 
supply  the  deficiency  thub  made  in  the  cask,  keep  tilling  it  trequently 
with  more  of  the  same  kind  of  liquor,  kept  for  the  pur|K>>e.  until  il)€ 
fermentation  has  nearly  subsided ;  then  {hji  in  the  hung,  ^ut  not  tight- 
ly, in  order  that  the  VH\uor  may  hare  some  further  vent,  and  as  soon  as 
the  fermentation  ceases,  close  up  the  vessel.  The  next  sowing:,  rack 
off  the  liquor  into  a  new  clean  cnsk  ;  ami  in  order  to  clarify  it,  Mr. 
Cooper  directs  a  mixture  of  sueet  milk,  the  whites  of  egg*  aqd  clean 
sand  to  be  beat  up  and  well  stirred  into  the  cask.  {See  article  Cides. 
for  the  particular  directions  for  this.)  But  it  b  believed,  that  about 
a  quart  of  sweet  milk  to  a  barrel,  well  stirred  and  mixed  with  the 
liquor  as  it  is  poured  in,  »till  answer  equally  well  and  perhaps  better. 
This  operation  alone  w  ill  not  only  clarify  liquors,  but  by  re{>eatiog  it 
several  times,  the  highest  coloured  wiues  may  be  nearly  or  quite  di- 
vested of  all  their  colour.  After  the  liquor  has  been  thus  clarified, let 
it  be  again  drawn  off  into  bottles,  or  into  fresh  clean  casks,  kept  in  a 
cool  cellar  for  use.  Mr.  Cooper  says,  that  his  liquors  thus  prepare*!, 
has  often  been  taken  by  good  judges  of  wine,  for  the  real  juice  of  the 
grape ;  and  has  been  pronounced  by  them  superior  to  most  of  tbo 
xvines  in  use.  Age,  however,  is  essential  in  perfecliog  ihb  kind  oi 
wine,  as  it  is  in  all  others. 

Mr.  Clark,  in  his  "  Travels  in  Russia."  makes  mention  of  his  bar- 
ing drank  mead  among  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  which  ivas  sixteen 
years  old;  and  this  liquor,  which  is  little  else  than  honey  and  water, 
he  assures  us  was  equal  to  good  Madeira  w  ine.  3Ir.  Coo  er  adds,  that 
the  expense  of  making  Pomona  wine  does  not  exceed  twenty-five  ot 
thirty  cents  a  gallon. 

Wine  of  a  tolerable  quality  may  be  made  of  the  juice  of  ^der  ber^ 
lies,  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  making  currant  wine. 

See  article  Currant?. 

Raspberries,  antl  blackberries  may  also  be  applied  to  the  Fame  use, 
and  less  sugar  will  be  found  requisite  in  making  wines  of  these  than 
of  currants. 

Under  article  Perry,  the  reader  will  find  some  digressive  observa- 
tions, (having  been  written  after  most  of  this  work  was  in  the  press,^ 
respecting  the  pear  in  Eneland  called  the  Tuznton  squash;  and  that 
the  juice  of  this  pear  had  been  frequent h*  sold  iu  London  for  Ctuun- 
paisrne.  The  circumstance  is  only  mentioned  here  again  for  the  pur- 
pose of  observing,  in  this  place,  tliat  no  doubt  many  kinds  of  the  pear. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT,  309 

z»  well  as  of  the  apple,  may  be  found,  by  diligent  search,  and  proper 
exi)eriment,  that  would  form  the  basis  of  as  fine  liquors,  and  in  as  great 
varieties  as  those  which  are  made  of  the  grape.  This  fact,  however, 
ought  not  to  discourage  the  culture  of  the  vine ;  for,  where  the  climate 
is  suitable  to  its  growth,  it  is  believed,  ihat  the  products  of  the  grape^ 
will  afford  a  wine  as  cheap  to  the  cultivator  as  any  other,  equally- 
good,  which  can  be  artificially  made. 

In  fiiakiug  artificial  wines,  French  brandy  is  used  to  add  more 
spirit,  and  to  assist  in  imparting  to  them  the  requisite  taste.  But,  as 
Trench  brandy  is  somewhat  expensive,  it  may  not  be  amiss  here  to 
mention,  that  a  very  pleasant  spirit  resembling  that  liquor  in  taste, 
may  be  made  of  the  spirit  distilled  from  cider,  by  putting  into  it  a  suit- 
able proportion  of  dried  peaches,  baked  hrmvn,  but  not  burnt ;  about 
half  a  gallon  of  these,  or  perhaps  less,  will  impart  to  a  barrel  of  this 
distilled  spirit  a  very  pleasant  taste,  smell  and  colour,  after  the  liquor 
has  had  time  to  ripen  by  age.  Whether  this  liquor,  thus  prepared, 
will  precisely  supfily  the  place  of  French  brandy  in  making  artificial 
wines,  is  not  particularly  known ;  certain  it  is,  however,  that  when  it 
has  age  it  has  much  of  the  brandy  flavor,  and  is  full  as  pleasant  as 
that  liquor.  Common  whiskey  also,  when  divested  of  its  essential 
oil,  may  in  like  manner  be  turned  into  a  pleasant  brandy,  after  it  has 
acquired  sufficient  age. 

WOLVES.  For  the  method  of  preventing  their  killing  sheep, 
see  article  Sheep. 

Wolves  are  easily  caiigiit  in  traps,  and  as  many  frontier  towns  are 
in  the  habit  of  oflcring  considerable  premiums  for  every  wolf  that  may 
be  killed,  1  will  suggest  a  method  of  destroying  them,  which  apears  te 
me  would  be  successful.  / 

Build  a  close  boafd  pen  out  in  the  Avilderness,  where  the  wolves 
most  frequent,  so  high  that  Ihey  cannot  get  over  it :  Let  it  be  about 
twenty  feet  square  :  Leave  a  hole  in  each  side  of  it  just  large  enough 
for  a  wolf  (o  thrust  his  head  into  :  Put  three  or  four  sheep  into  the  pen 
and  feed  them  there  :  Take  pieces  of  tainted  meat  and  drag  them  along 
on  the  ground,  oil'  for  miles,  in  different  directions  from  the  pen.  The 
wolves  coming  across  the  scents  made  by  these  trails  will  follow  them 
to  the  pen,  and  when  there  thoy  will  stick  their  heads  through  the 
holes  to  try  and  get  at  the  sheep.  Let  the  sheep  be  prevented  from 
coming  too  close  to  these  holes. 

All  then  that  is  further  to  be  done  is  to  contrive  traps,  which,  as 
•hey  run  their  heads  through  the  holes,  will  either  kill  ^hcm,  hano- 


310  FARMER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Hiem,  or  otherwise  hold  them  fast  till  they  can  be  killed  or  takea ; 
and  the  different  methods  of  doing  this,  I  should  suppose  any  hunter 
of  common  ingenuity  could  easily  contrive  for  himself. 

This  plan  would  l>e  equally  useful  where  the  fafmer  folds  his  sheep 
every  night  to  keep  ofiFthe  wolves. 

WOOD-HOUSE.  Every  farmer  should  provide  himself  with  this 
building,  and  into  this  let  him  every  winter  store  away  wood  sufficient 
for  the  ensuing  year,  so  that  he  may  have  a  constant  supply  of  <lry 
fuel.  Any  kind  of  wood,  or  even  that  which  is  much  decayed,  will 
bum  well  when  dry  ;  and  half  of  any  given  quantify  of  dry  wood  will 
give  more  heat  than  the  whole  where  it  is  wet  and  green  ;  so  that 
there  is  a  considerable  saving  of  wooil  in  having  it  dry,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  greater  pleasure  and  convenience  which  it  affords. 

A  house  twenty  feet  square  and  ten  feet  high  ivill  hold  fifty  cords  of 
"ivood ;  but  if  the  farmer  will  be  at  the  pains  to  have  his  rooms  warm- 
ed, and  his  culinary  fiusiness  performed  in  the  most  approved  and  eco* 
nomical  manner,  he  will  find  the  one  half  of  this  yearly  quantity  ot" 
wood  sufficient  for  all  his  purposes;  and  thus  make  a  saving  in  this 
article  alone  to  the  amount  of  at  least  thirty  dollars  a  year,  and  where 
fuel  is  dear,  to  perhaps  double  that  amount. 

See  article  Warming  of  Rooms. 

In  cutting  wood  short,  af'er  it  is  carted  home,  a  saw  should  be 
used;  as  this  makes  a  gr«at  saving  of  the  wood,  and  is  at  the  same 
time  equally  expeditious. 

WORMS.     Sec  articles  Bots  and  Ixsects. 

WOUNDS.  Mr.  Bartlet  directs,  that  where  horses  or  other  cattle 
receive  any  large  wound,  the  first  step  is  to  sow  it  uj),  if  it  he  in  such 
part  of  the  body  as  will  admit  of  this  ;  for  in  some  parts  the  wound 
nvill  be  drawn  open  by  the  lying  down,  or  rising  oYthe  animal.  Where 
the  wound  n  deep  let  the  stitches  be  proportionately  deep,  so  as  to 
bring  the  lower  parts  ©f  it  together.  The  stitches  may  be  half  an  inch 
or  more  apart. 

If  an  artery  has  be€n  opened,  let  it  be  secured  by  passing  a  crooked 
needle  underneath  and  tying  it  up.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  apply  a 
button  of  lint  or  tow,  di[)ped  in  a  strong  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  close 
to  the  mouth  of  the  bleeiling  vessi  I,  and  be  careful  that  it  be  kept 
there  by  a  proper  compress  and  bandage  titl  an  f>c/mr  is  formed. 

The  lips  of  the  wound  bring  Iircught  together  by  the  need'r  or 
bandage,  it  needs  only  to  be  covered  with  rags  <lij)ped  in  brandy. 


FARMER'S  ASSISTANT.  311 

Where  the  blood  of  the  animal  is,  however,  in  a  bail  state.,  which  may 
soon  be  known  by  the  aspect  of  the  wouuil,  and  its  not  healing,  the 
blood  should  be  rectified  by  internal  medicines.  The  wounded  part 
should  be  kept  as  free  from  motion  as  possible. 

All  wounds  of  the  joints,  tendons,  and  meml)raneou3  parts,  should 
be  dressed  with  terebiuthine  medicines,  to  which  may  be  added  honey, 
and  the  tincture  of  myrrh.  All  greasy  applications  should  be  avoid-' 
ed.     Fomentations  and  poultices  are  also  of  great  use  here. 


312  FAHMKK'S)  AhSISTANi'. 


Y. 


YEAST.     For  the  best  yeast,  see  article  Beer. 

A  method  of  making  what  may  be  called  a  portable  or  durable 
yfeast,  is  as  tbiiows : 

Take  a  quantity  of  hops,  suitable  to  the  quantity  of  yeast  you  in- 
tend to  make,  boil  them  well,  and  strain  off  the  water  in  which  they 
are  boiled ;  into  this  water  stir  in  a  suitable  quantity  of  flour,  and 
considerable  salt,  and  then  add  to  this  a  proportionate  quantity  of 
goo<l  yeast;  let  this  mass  rise  as  much  as  it  will ;  then  stir  in  fine  In- 
dian meal  till  it  is  so  thick  as  that  it  can  l>e  made  into  small  cakes  of 
the  size  of  a  dollar  or  larger.  When  the  cakes  are  thus  madej  dry 
them  in  the  sun  till  they  are  hard,  minding  to  turn  them  frequently  to 
prevent  their  moulding,  and  then  lay  them  by  in  a  dry  place,  for  fu- 
ture use. 

When  you  wish  to  have  yeast,  take  one  of  these  cakes,  crumble  it 
to  pieces,  pour  warm  water  on  it,  and  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place,  and 
it  will  soon  rise  sufficiently  to  make  good  yeast.     A  quantity  of  these  * 
cakes  may  be  thus  made  at  once,  which  will  last  for  six  months 
or  more. 

YELLOWS.  In  neat  cattle  this  disease  is  usually  called fA^  over- 
Jlomnic  of  the  gall ;  in  horses  it  is  called  the  yellows  or  jaundice.  See 
article  JNeat  Cattle. 

\V  hen  horses  are  troubled  with  this  disorder,  it  is  known  by  the 
yellowness  of  the  eyes  and  of  the  inside  of  the  mouth.  The  animal 
becomes  dull  and  refuses  to  eat.  The  fever  and  the  yellowness  en- 
crease  together.  His  urine  is  voided  with  difficulty  and  looks  red 
like  blood  after  it  has  lain  some  time.  The  offside  of  the  belly  is 
sometimes  hard  and  distended.  If  the  disorder  be  not  checked,  he 
becomes  frantic. 

In  old  horses,  when  the  liver  has  been  long  diseased,  the  cure  is 
hardly  practicable,  and  ends  fatally  with  a  wasting  diarrhoea;  but, 
says  Mr.  Bartiet,  when  the  disease  is  recent,  and  the  horse  youn":- 
Ihere  is  no  danger  if  the  following  directions  are  observed  : 


FARMER'S  Assistant.  m 

First,  bleed  plentifully  and  give  the  laxative  clyster,  as  horses 
having  this  disorder  are  usually  costive ;  and  the  next  day  give  him  a 
purge  of  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  cream  of  tartar,  half  an  ounce  of  cas- 
tile  soap,  and  ten  drachms  of  succotrine  aloes.  Repeat  this  two  or 
three  times,  giving  intermediately  the  following  balls  and  drink :  Take 
Ethiop's  mineral,  half  an  ounce ;  millepedes,  the  same  quantity ;  Cas- 
tile soap,  one  ounce ;  make  this  into  a  ball,  and  give  one  every  day, 
and  wash  it  down  with  a  pint  of  this  decoction:  Take  madder  root, 
and  turmerick,  of  each  four  ounces ;  burdock  root,  sliced,  half  a 
pound  ;  Monk's  rhubarb,  four  ounces ;  boil  the  whole  in  a  guUon  of 
forge  water  down  to  three  quarts ;  strain  it  off  and  sweeten  it  with 
honey. 

Balls  of  Castile  soap  and  turmerick,  may  also  be  given  for  this  pnr- 
pose,  three  or  four  ounces  a  day,  and  will  in  most  cases  succeed  in  ef- 
fecting a  cure- 

Bj-^  these  means,  the  disorder  generally  abates  in  a  week,  which 
may  be  seen  in  the  alteration  of  the  horse's  eyes  and  mouth;  but  the 
medicines  must  he  contin-ied  till  the  yellowness  is  removed.  Should 
the  disorder  prove  obstinate  you  must  try  more  potent  medicines,  viz : 
Mercurial  physic,  repeated  two  or  three  Umesat  proper  intervals,  and 
then  the  following  balls  :  Take  salt  of  tartar  two  oimces ;  cinnabar 
of  antimony,  four  ounces;  live  millepedes  and  filings  of  steel,  of  each, 
four  ounces;  Castile  soap,  half  a  jiound  ;  make  these  into  balls  of  the 
size  of  hen's  eggs,  and  give  one  of  them  night  and  morning  with  a  pint 
of  the  above  drink.  On  the  re«wvery  of  the  horse  give  him  two  m 
three  mild  [uirges,  and  if  he  be  full  aiid  fat  put  in  a  rowcl. 


4Q 


ii4 


FAKMEK'S  ASSISTANT* 


CONCLUSIOX 


To  conclude  lliis  work,  a  tlescriplioii  is  privt- u  ol'  a  very  s;nall  larii! 
billable  lor  any  one  who  wishes  to  lariii  only  on  a  &ina!l  scale.    Such 
a  farm  may  suit  the  man  of  small  fortune  who  wishes  lo  live  in  an 
ecouonncal  manner.     The  culture  of  such,  or  something  similar,  may 
aUo  aO'ord  amusemeut  to  the  man  of  taste. 

Take,  for  instance,  a  pice  of  ground  of  15  acres,  bounded  on  some 
highnay  in  front,  autl  let  it  be,  say,  00  rods  ou  the  highway,  and  es  • 
leudixig  back  40  rods,  and  cut  into  divisions  as  follows  : — 


2 

12 

3 

n 

iO 

i i 

1            9 

1 

<)  1  7  • 

1 

O 

' 

The  two  small  divisions  whicli  ire  not  numhered,  are  intended  for 
the  house,  &c.  and  for  the  barn,  «S.c.  The  two  short  narrow  strips  are 
for  lanes,  and  the  long  one  is  merely  a  cartway  across  the  ends  of  tht 
btripb  8,  0,  10,  <fcc. 

1.  Orchard ; — say,  one  acre. 

2.  Ground  for  raising  Lombardy  poplars  and  locust-trees  for  fire- 

wood ; — say,  two  and  a  half  acres. 

3.  G  round  lor  cultivating  grasses  for  soiling,  and  for  other  purposes : 

say,  two  and  a  half  acres. 
A  and  5.    Two  hog  pastures;  the  one  cultivated  with  potatoes  or 
carrots,  &c.  while  the  other  is  in  clover  lor  feeding  the  swine; 
Bay,  one  acre.     The  hogsty  is  to  be  set  on  the  corner  between 
the  two  euciosures.    See  article  IIogbtv. 


F AR:\IER'S  assistant.  31;^ 

6.  Currant,  ami  of  her  fruit  garden  ; — say,  half  an  acre. 

7.  Kitchen  garden ; — sajr,  one  fourth  of  an  acre. 

8.  9,  10,  Arc.  Divisions  of  a  field,  of  say,  six  acres;  the  6ve  divi- 

sions, or  strips,  are  to  be  cultivated  with  a  rotation  of  crops, 

similar  to  the  method  described  under  article  Soiling,  &;c.  ; 

beginning  with  potatoes,  then  Indian-corn,  then  wheat,  then 

clover  two  years,  and  then  potatoes  again. 
This  farm  is  to  keep  three  or  four  cows  and  one  good  strong  horse 
only.  The  labor  of  one  such  horse,  well  kept,  is  sulficient  for  such  a 
farm,  and  for  other  family  uses.  To  keep  two  horses  will  create  an 
additional  expense  of  about  40  dollars  a  year.  A  one  horse  cart  will 
be  wanted  for  the  farm,  and  a  one  horse  carriage  lor  the  family.  The 
horse  and  the  cows  are  all  to  be  kept  on  the  soiling  plan,  before  de- 
scribed ;  and  about  ten  or  twelve  sheep  may  be  kept  in  the  orchard, 
and  in  the  woodland  (marked  2,)  adjoining. 

'J'he  potatoes  and  other  roots  which  may  be  raised  from  this  farm, 
Trill  serve  to  keep  the  hor?e  and  the  cows  well,  and  will  also  neatly 
complete  the  fatting  of  hogs.  The  surplus  of  the  Indian-corn,  after 
Jeserving  what  is  necessary  for  the  family,  will  complete  the  fatting. 
About  eight  good  hogs  may  be  raised  and  fatted  every  year.  Sec  ar- 
ticle SwiXE. 

A  plentiful  supply  of  bees  may  be  constantly  kept,  w  hich  will  be 
found  very  prmluctive.  (See  article  Bees.)  A  small  poultry  yard 
for  ducks  and  geese,  S:c.  may  also  be  kept  and  the  fowls  fed  on  boiled 
j>otatoes,  <tc.  (See  article  Poiltry.)  The  orchard,  if  of  the  best 
grafted  fruit,  will  give  at  least  60  barrel^,  of  cider,  yearly,  after  the 
trees  have  acquired  a  good  size,  and  this  liquor  caa  also  be  converted 
to  an  excellent  account,  with  the  addition  of  the  honey  of  the  bee?. 
See  the  manner  of  making  Pomona  whu,  under  article  Wine.  The 
oows  will  afford  milk  enough  to  make  three  or  four  firkins  of  butler, 
beside  what  is  wanted  for  the  family.  {See  article  Butter.)  The 
■woodland  Avill  afford  sufficient  fuel,  if  well  cultivated  with  thick 
growths  of  Lombardy  poplars  and  locust,  provided  the  house  l>e  warm- 
pd  and  the  cooking  business,  Arc.  he  performed  in  the  most  economical 
manner.  'See  article  Wabming  Rooms.)  In  the  enclosure  marked 
3<  a  sufficiency  of  Lucerne,  cichory,  tali  oat-grass,  or  other  good  grass 
lor  soiling  may  be  constantly  raised  for  soiling  the  cows  and  horse: 
-while  some  part  of  the  ground  may  be  in  turn^  employed  in  the  culture 
of  roots,  «5cr.     From  the  fire  divisions  of  the  field  may  be  expected. 


316  FARMER^S  ASSISTANT. 

with  the  best  cultivation,  and  highest  manuring,  al>out  the  iollowing 
amount  of  Oifferent  products,  viz :  400  bushels  potatoes,  80  bushels 
Indian-corn,  30  bushels  wheat,  and  8  tons  of  ha}'.  About  one  half 
of  the  |)ork  ratte<l  every  year  may  be  sold.  The  sheep  are  to  be  pas- 
tured in  the  woodland  lot  and  in  the  orchard.  With  the  growth  of 
the  locust,  particularly,  will  always  be  fouod  alconsiderdble  growth  o? 
grass.     They  may  occasionally  be  soiled  a  little  when  requisite. 

In  addition  to  the  ground  cultivated  for  fuel,  it  would  be  well  to 
have  another  wood  lot  of  say,  five  acres,  near  the  farm,  in  which, 
amongst  other  trees,  some  that  are  good  for  timber  should  be  raised. 

Here,  then,  is  a  farm  of  twenty  acres  altogether,  which,  if  of  a  good 
cultivable  soil,  and  cultivated  in  the  most  complete  manner,  and 
agreeably  to  the  directions  contained  in  the  different  articles  above 
referred  to,  will  be  found  amply  sufficient  to  support  a  common  family, 
living  in  a  prudent  economical  manner;  and  at  the  same  time  th« 
cultivation  of  it  is  calcula^ted  to  afford  pleasure  sls  well  as  profit,  wliile 
the  hut  too  common  method  of  bestov.iag  poor  slovenly  culture  on  a 
large  farm  is  only  productive  of  the  reverse.   . 

The  foregoing  is  merely  exhibited  as  a  sprcirr^n  of  wh.it  may  be 
done  on  a  small  scale.  The  farm,  though  small,  may  he  still  smaller, 
and  tilled  with  the  same  advantage  ;  or  it  may  he  larger,  and  the  ar- 
rangement of  it  may  be  different,  and  yet  equally  advantageous.  At 
all  events,  its  arrangement  and  divisions  should  be  suitable  to  the 
ground  which  is  selected  for  the  purpose. 


I'HE  END. 


APPENDIX 


THE  matter  which  is  arranged  under  the  three  foHowiii'r  article*^ 
was  intended  as  additions  to  those  articles  in  the  bod}  of  this  work, 
but  were  received  to  late  for  insertion.  The  next  following  article 
is  intended  to  correct  any  mistake  which  might  happen  by  the  (all 
oat-grass  being  called  by  different  names.  And  the  article  wecf/wr 
was  intended  as  a  substitute  for  that  which  appears  in  tlie  Iwdy  of  this 
work  ;  but  as  it  also  came  too  late  for  insertion,  it  is  added  by  way  of 
appendix,  omitting  those  parts  which  are  similar  to  the  two  last  para- 
graphs of  the  same  article  in  the  m  ork. 


CUTTINGS.  It  has  always  been  said  that  neither  cuttings,  siipt, 
or  scions  should  be  taken  from  the  sprouts  of  trees.  Forsyth  parfit-u- 
larly  insists  on  this,  alledging  that  sprouts  never  become  good  bearers. 
Sprouts  certainly  bear  no  fruit  while  they  are  mere  thrifty  upri^-ht 
shoots  ;  but  it  if  believed  that  when  they  have  obtained  considerable 
size,  and  shoot  out  their  lateral  branches,  these  will  become  as  good 
bearers  as  any  other  branches  of  the  tree.  For  currants  in  particular 
some  Avho  have  tried  cuttings  of  the  sprouts  for  setting,  assure  me 
that  they  prefer  them  to  the  branches;  as  thej' grow  straiffht  and 
thriftjs  and  when  they  have  thrown  out  their  lateral  branches,  bear 
exceedingly  well. 

It  has  been  said,  that  a  cutting,  elip,  or  scion  when  planted,  or  o-raft- 
ed,  will  live  no  longer  than  the  parent  stock,  if  that  dies  a  natural 
death.  Mention  is  made  in  (lie  letters  of  Espreilla,  of  a  very  famous 
pear-tree  at  Teignton,  in  Great-Britain,  which,  on  account  of  the  ex- 
cellence of  its  fruit  for  making /Jfrr^/,  was  called  the  Teignton  sqitashj 
— that  all  the  neighbouring  farmers  grafted  from  this  free  ;  and,  that 
when  it  was  found  in  the  last  stage  of  decay,  all  the  grafts  which  had 
been  taken  from  it  were  found  in  the  same  condition. 

Perhaps  it  will  be  found,  that  cuttings,  slips,  or  scions,  will  die 
when  the  parent  stock  dies  of  natural  decay  ;  but  that  the  same  rule 
will  not  hold  in  regard  to  suckers,  as  these  appear  to  be  somewhat  of 
a  different  kind  of  growth,  and  more  in  the  nature  of  a  young  tree 
They  seem  to  grow  with  more  health  and  Tiger  than  the  late.''al 
branches. 


3J8  APPENDIX. 

ORCHARD.  It  has  been  genrrally  undcrsiootl,  lliat  a  peach- 
orchard  of  the  l)est  selected  Iriiil  can  only  l)e  had  \ty  iuuculatiiig  the 
ywunj  orrowing  trees  with  the  hejt  kinds  of  frnit ;  that  the  stoues  do 
not  [)roduce  tiie  ^ame^kinds.  Some,  however,  say,  that  U  the  stoiieg 
be  hurled  immediately,  without  drying,  they  will  produce  the  same 
kin<l. 

I;  is  observed  in  tlie  letters  of  Espreilla,  that  in  sonje  of  the  best 
eider  counties  of  Great-Britain  they  do  not  graft  their  apple-trees  at 
present :  but,  for  rear'.nc  younj:  trees  they  take  the  lanrest  seeds  which 
are  luund  in  the  south  aiiie  of  the  Largest  apples,  ami  those  of  the  best 
selections  '^^  fruit;  and  that  from  these  tliey  raise  either  H[)ple-trees  of 
the  same  kind,  or  others  which  are  found  nearly  or  quite  m  good.  It 
"U'ould  be  well  to  make  some  ex|)eriments  to  test  the  efiRcacy  of  this 
practice.  Probably  it  will  also  be  found  best  to  plant  the  seeds  as 
«oon  as  ihey  have  been  taken  from  the  apple  and  belore  they  have 
Oricd. 

PERRY.  In  the  letters  6t Espreilla,  which  have  been  before  men- 
Itoned  in  this  a[)pendix,  mention  is  made  that  the  pcrr}^  made  from  a 
famous  pear-tree  at  Teijjriton,  in  En;i;lan(l,  the  fruit  of  which  was 
called  the  Tci<cnton  squash,  had  frequently  been  sold  in  London  for 
Champaignc.  Farmers  in  this  country  should  pay  more  attention  to 
the  selection  and  culture  of  such  pear-lrees  as  bear  plentifidly,  and 
yearly,  of  the  best  kind  of  fruit.  Scr  articles  Orchard,  PK.AR-TaEr,, 
and  Perry,  in  the  body  ol  this  work. 

TALL  MEADOW  OA'J'S.  'I'his  is  the  ar/?;m  cZa//or  mentioned 
under  article  Grasses.  It  is  cultivated  consi(ieral)!y  in  Pennsvlva- 
nia^  and  is  hislily  esteemed  there  lor  soiling  or  for  hay.  It  is  some- 
iimes  called  tall  oat-s:rass,  as  in  article  Grasses  in  the  body  of  this 
work,  sometimes  tail  meadow  oais,  Mnd  sometimes  orchard  s[r ass. 

WEATHER.  It  is  very  esse  ntial  to  the  farmer  to  have  a  forecast 
of  the  weather;  not  only  in  re  jrard  to  summers,  whether  th«-y  will  be 
generally  wet  or  dry,  warm  or  cool ;  but  also  what  are  the  every  day 
indications  of  \.  h^t  the  following;  «lays  are  to  be.  A  knowlege  of  this 
kind  enables  the  farmer  to  carry  on  his  business  to  much  more  ad- 
vantage; not  only  as  it  regards  the  products  to  be  raised  during  a 
■ummer,  but  also  as  it  respects  the  con<bitting  his  labors  from  «Iay  (o 
day.  If  he  can  pretty  correctly  foretell,  that  a  summer  is  to  be  un- 
commonly dry,  and  of  course  his  crops  of  grass  small,  this  may  indi- 
cate the  necessity  of  bis  lessening  his  stock  of  cattle;  or  if  the  seasoa 
is  to  he  uncommou'y  productive  of  grass,  of  incre;ising  his  stock. 
The  knowlege  of  what  the  coming  season  is  to  be,  will  also  enable 
him  better  to  adapt  his  culture  to  it;  and  the  knowlege  of  the  ap- 
proaching weather,  from  day  to  day,  will  indicate  the  necessity  of 
driving  his  business  to  the  utmost  at  times,  and  at  others  again,  of  de- 
sisting from  his  labors. 

The  indications  of  the  seasons  are  scarcely  to  be  learned  in  the  life 
of  man  ;  even  the  careful  observations  of  centuries  are  perhaps  requi- 
site to  attaining  a  toleraldy  accurate  knowlege  of  them ;  nor  is  it 
fD  be  expected,  that  knowlege  thas  acquired  for  one  country  wouW 


APPENDIX.  319 

answer  for  another ;  different  countries  exhibit  ditfereut  signs,  and 
thtse  musi  be  learned  on  the  s|)ot  and  not  gleaned  from  the  observa- 
tions ol  others  in  «lillerent  |»arta  of  the  world. 

The  Royal  Socitly  in  Great- Britain  have  lor  more  than  a  century 
past  been  making  careful  daily  observations  olthe  state  ol  the  atmosr 
phere,  and  ol  all  signs  relating  lo  the  weather,  by  which  it  is  found, 
that  uncommon  sea  ons,  whether  wet  or  dry,  hot  or  cold,  have  always 
been  preceded  by  certain  signs  or  circumsrances;  hence  a  tolerably 
accurate  knowledge  is  derived  of  what  the  coming  season  is  to  be,  by 
the  recurrtiice  of  the  signs  which  are  found  to  precede  it.  Kothiug 
of  the  kind  has  however  been  attempted  in  this  country,  and  the  ck- 
periijitutal  knowlegt  ol  the  British,  thus  derived,  would  probably  be 
found  no  knowledge  Ibrus.  Indeed,  in  a  territory  so  widely  extended 
as  ours,  the  seasous  may  be  ditierant  in  different  parts;  hence  the 
knowledge  we  might  derive  in  this  way  would  be  very  imperfect,  un- 
less it  were  founded  on  the  result  of  similar  observations  made  in  dit- 
ferent  districts  of  the  country. 

In  regard  to  some  of  the  signs  of  approaching  wet  or  dry  weather, 
they  will  be  found  to  vary  in  different  places.  This  may,  however, 
be  generally  o!. served,  that  l.t^iore  the  approach  of  wet  weather  and 
(hiring  ils  continuance,  the  air  is  loaded  with  moisture,  and  until  thi5 
has  been  discharged  in  rain,  or  c  uried  off  by  the  wini's,  a  return  of 
perman<nl  dry  weatlier  is  not  to  ie  looked  ibr.  'i'iie  i)resence  ot  a 
moist,  or  ot  a  dry  air,  is  ensily  to  iie  known  by  the  clouds  :  VV  hen  llie 
smallest  of  these  increase  in  size  as  they  are  wafted  along,  then  the 
air  is  surcharged  with  mv>isture,  and,  generally,  rain  may  be  soon  ex- 
pected :  Oil  the  contrary,  when  tht  cloiicls  are  ^eeu  gradually  lessen- 
ing as  they  pass  along,  and  the  small  ones  disappearing,  this  is  an  in- 
dication  of  a  dry  air,  and  tht  breruimer  of  a  dry  s[)e!!  of  weather. , 
The  extremis,  indeed,  of  a  ury  or  of  a  nvoist  almosj)here,  are  to  be 
known  by  the  extremes  of  th.ese  cases  :  M  here  the  clouds  increase  or 
decrease  very  mpitily,  the  'orniei  indicates  extreme  mois.ure,  and 
the  latter  extreme  dryness  in  the  air;  and  generally  speaking,  the 
greater  these  extremes,  the  mort  certainly  may  the  usnai  resnlta  oi" 
"wet  or  of  dry  wedtber  be  e\!>ected  to  follow. 

BuL  there  is  nothing  cert;in  in  tlies<^  things.  TJie  chemical  opera^ 
lion?  of  the  atmosphere  ire  olten  ex  renitly  sudden;  cool  ami  warm 
cunt  nts  of  air  rneetiiig  and  mingling  together,  are  often  quickly 
ch:uiged  into  mist  or  clouds  and  |)roduce  a  storm;  and  sometin.es 
clouds  are  as  su(i<lenly  dissipated,  and  resolved  into  "thin  air  aaain." 

(  hemists  have  ascertained  that  air  is  mere  ly  water  in  an  exireme 
rarifed  state,  by  the  operation  of  caloric  or  licat.  Heat  seems  (o  be 
the  sotd  of  Nature— Perhajis  something  of  the  essence  of  Dkity  Him- 
sell",  4liffusing  his  presence  ihrough  bis  stujiendous  works.  Certain  it 
is,  there  could  be  no  life  or  existence,  no  visible  creation  without  the 
presence  of  beat.  This  enlivening  principle,  diffused  through  the 
Avaters  of  the  deep  has  |)r(»duced  the  air  or  aftnos|)here  in  which  we 
hre;*tlie;  this  air  at  the  same  time  contains  water  in  solution,  which 
we  call  moisture  ;  and  this  again  is  susceptible  of  being  chanaed  into 


320  APPE.NDIX. 

miet  or  clouds;  which,  in  due  season,  are  either  dissipated  or  convert- 
ed again  into  water.  Such  seems  to  be  the  siii;[)Iicity  of  thrse  mighly 
opeiations  ol  xSalure.  We  have,  houerer,  but  luinl  conceptions  how 
these  wonders  are  performed:  au»l  therein  we  have  ueverthelets  the 
pre-eminence  over  the  lower  orders  of  creation;  but  they  in  turn, 
»eeni  to  enjoy  a  capacity  superior  loours  in  being  able  to  loreseewhen 
the  storms  or  fair  weather  are  at  hand. 

Thus,  the  common  tield  spider  seems  to  possess,  intuitively,  a 
knowledge  of  what  the  coming  weather  is  to  be;  lor  this  knowledge 
seems  necessary  to  his  existence  :  an»l  P'ovidence  has  kindly  given 
nil  his  creatures  to  know  as  much  as  their  condition  requires.  When, 
therefore,  this  insect  is  inactive  and  is  not  seen  engaged  in  repairing 
the  damages  done  by  the  rains  to  his  works,  more  rains  may  shortly 
be  expected  ;  but  when  you  discover  him  busy  in  repairing  what  the 
rains  have  injured,  and  in  extending  his  lines  in  various  direclions,  it 
is  found  an  infallible  sign  that  a  dry  spell  of  weather  is  ap|(roaching. 

Other  animals  again,  are,  perhaps,  not  so  fully  gifted  with  this  pre- 
science, but  have  still  a  sutficiency  to  be  enabled  to  be  pre[iared  for 
the  changes  of  the  weather,  {^ee  the  two  las'  |)aragraphs  ol  article 
Weather,  in  the  body  of  this  work,  for  the  signs  of  fair  and  foul  wea- 
ther, as  indicated  by  beasts,  birds  an<l  insects.) 

Barometrical  observations  are  useful  in  ascertaining  the  coming 
weather.  "In  general  it  may  be  exi)ected  that  when  the  merciirj 
rises  high,  a  few  days  of  fair  weather  will  foIk)w;  if  it  falls,  rain  may 
be  expected." 

Tlie  flight  of  birds  of  passage  to  the  north  pretty  certainly  indicate 
the  a{)proach  of  sjiring,  and  their  return,  that  of  winter. 

In  some  places  certain  winds  generally  terminate  in  rain  or  snow. 
Such  is  the  case  with  a  north  ea.st  wind  on  the  Atlantic  coast;  and, 
what  seems  singular,  the  progress  of  the  storm  is  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection to  the  wind.  This  fact  was  ascertained  some  years  since,  by 
noting  the  time,  at  different  places  along  the  coast,  w  lien  a  northeast 
storm  commf'nced  ;  the  result  of  which  was,  that  it  was  found  to  have 
commenced  af)Out twelve  hours  sooner  at  Charlesfown  than  at  Bostota; 
and  that  its  jirogress  against  the  wind  was  at  the  rate  oi"  al)OUt  sixtj- 
miles  an  hour.  This  is,  however,  in  conformity  with  a  sign  of  the 
■weather,  which  but  seldom  fails;  tliat  is,  when  the  wind  is  from  one 
quarter,  and  you  perceive  the  skies  thickening  and  becoming  gradu- 
ally overcast  in  the  ojjposite  direction,  then  a  storm  is  at  hand,  and 
the  sky  in  ihe  quarter  from  whence  the  wind  comes  will  be  overcast 
tlie  last. 

The  weather  isgenerally  unsettled  about  the  times  of  the  equinoxes, 
and  high  winds  and  storms  are  then  to  be  expected. 

"  Falling  weather  oftener  happens  about  the  full  and  diange  of  the 
moon  than  at  other  times,  especially  if  she  be  near  her  perigee  at  the 
time  of  these  changes;"  as  the  attraction  of  vapofs  or  moisture  from  ' 
the  earth  is  then  the  greatest. 

When  the  skj-  is  red  before  the  sun  rises,  it  is  generally  an  indica- 
tion of  rain :   bat  redness  after  its  setting  is  a  sign  of  fair  weather  the 


APPENDIX.  321 

next  day.  The  setting  of  the  sun  behind  a  black  watery  cloud  be- 
tokens rain  at  hand;  and  the  same  may  be  observed  when  the  ^uq 
wades,  as  it  is  called,  when  going  down. 

"The  falling  of  heavy  dews  b  a  sign  of  (he  continiif.iice  of  fair 
weather. 

When  the  sun  appears  very  broad  and  dim,  either  at  risincror  set- 
ting,  this  IS  a  sign  that  the  atmosphere  contains  much  moisture,  which 
may  soon  be  expected  to  condense  and  fall.  On  the  contrarv,  when 
that  body  appears  small,  brilliant  and  dazzlinsr.  this  is  an  indication  of 
a  dry  state  of  the  air.  It  is  also  said,  that  when  boilins  water  evapo- 
rates most  copiously,  this  is  an  indication  of  approachinc^  rain 

A  rainbow  in  the  west,  and  thunder  in  the  nrt)rning,  are  both  pretty 
certain  indications  of  stormy  weather  at  hand. 

A  halo  or  circle  round  the  sun  or  moon,  is  also  a  pretty  certain  in- 
dication  of  laliing  weather;  and  the  same  may  be  observed  when  the 
stars  look  dim  and  appear  surrounded  with  au  obtuse  Ijtrht 

Othor  signs  might  be  mentioned,  but  perhaps,  most  ot  them  would 
De  tound  local,  applying  more  to  certain  places  than  po^eesinc^  any 
general  characteristicp.  '  ° 


41 


INDEX. 


A. 


INTRODUCTION, 

Page  3 

Ash, 

Page  n 

Air, 

9 

Ashes, 

ib. 

Apples, 

10 

Asparagus, 

ib. 

Apple-Tree» 

ib. 

Ass. 

J2 

Apricot, 

n 

B. 


Barley, 

Barn, 

Barn-Yard, 

Bean, 

Beer, 

Bees, 

Beet, 


12 

Eog-Meado\f8» 

21 

14 

Bot-Worms, 

22 

15 

Buck- Wheat, 

ib. 

ik 

Bull, 

ib. 

16 

Burn-Baking, 

ib. 

17 

Burnt-Clay, 

23 

20 

Butter, 

24 

c. 


Cabbage, 

25 

Calves, 

26 

Canker, 

ib. 

Canker-Worm, 

ib. 

Carriages, 

ib. 

Carrot, 

28 

Caterpillars, 

30 

Cattle, 

ib. 

Change  of  Cropsi 

ib. 

Change  of  Soeds, 

32 

Cheese, 

33 

<M)urn, 

-14 

Cider, 

ib. 

Clay, 

3S 

Clearing  of  Lands, 

ib. 

Climate, 

89 

Clover, 

ib. 

Composts, 

41 

Cows, 

ib. 

Crab-Apple-Trec, 

41 

Cream, 

ib. 

Cucumber, 

43 

Curr.  nt, 

ib. 

Cuttinge, 

45 

3:24 


INDEX, 


D. 


Dairy,  Page  46 

Dew,  47 

Ditch,  if>. 

Divisious  of  a  Farm,  ib. 


Dressing?,  P<%(:  48 

Drill,  ib. 

Drought,  ib.. 

Dun'r,  Dunghills,  Arc,  40 


E. 


Earths, 

Elder, 

Elm, 


50 
52 
ib. 


Encloeureg, 
Experiments. 


52 
ib. 


F. 


Fallowing  of  Land, 

53 

Foals,  01-  Coalts, 

til 

False  Quarter, 

54 

Fodder  and  Foddering, 

ib. 

Farcy, 

55 

Folding  of  Land, 

63 

Farmers, 

ib. 

Food  of  Plants, 

C4 

Fences, 

50 

Forest, 

65 

Fermentation, 

57 

Foundering  of  Horses, 

67 

Fern,  or  Brakes, 

58 

Freezing, 

68 

Flax, 

ib. 

Fruit-Trees, 

ib. 

Flooding  of  Lands* 

60 

Fuller's  Thistle, 

72 

G. 


Gardens, 

73 

Grain-House,  or  Granary, 

7/ 

iJarget, 

74 

Grasses, 

78 

Germination  of  Plant?, 

ih. 

Gravel, 

90 

Gigs, 

ib. 

Green- Dressing, 

ih. 

Glanders, 

75 

Greens, 

9) 

Goats, 

ib. 

Green-Scouring, 

ib. 

Goose, 

ib. 

Gripes, 

ib. 

Gooseberry, 

ib. 

G  roves, 

ib. 

Grafting, 

76 

Gypsum, 

.02 

H. 


Harrows  and  Harrowing, 

93 

Herd's-Grass, 

101 

Harvesting, 

94 

Hessian-Fly, 

ib. 

Hay- Making, 

ib. 

Hide  Bound, 

ib. 

Hedges, 

96 

Hills  .md  Valleys, 

102 

Hemp, 

n 

Uoe  and  Hoeing. 

ib. 

INDEX. 


325 


Hogsty, 

Page  102 

Horn  Distemper, 

Page  107 

Ho&s, 

103 

Horse, 

ib. 

Hollow  Drains, 

ib. 

Horse-Hoe, 

no 

Hop, 

105 

I. 


[mprovement  of  Land, 

111 

Inoculating,  of  Budding, 

119 

Inarching, 

114 

Insects, 

120 

Indiao  Coro, 

115 

J. 


Jaundice, 

125  1 

Jerusalem  Artichoke, 

125 

K. 

Killing  of  Beasts, 

128  1 

Lampas, 
Layers, 
Lice, 
Limestone, 

126 
ib. 

127 
ib. 

Loam, 
Locust, 

Lombardy  Poplar, 
Lucerne, 

328 
ib. 
ib. 

12a 

M. 


Mangel  Wurzel, 
Root, 

or  Scarcily 

129 

Methegliu, 
Mildew, 

141 
ib. 

Manures, 

ib. 

Millet, 

142 

Maple, 
Mares, 
Marie, 

139 

ib. 

140 

Mowing, 
Mowing  Ground, 
Mud, 

143 
144 

ib: 

Me-idows, 
Melon, 

ib. 
141 

Mulberry, 
Mustard, 

ib. 

ib. 

w. 


Neat  Cattle,  145  j      baadry, 

New    Horee-HoeiDg   Hus-  j  Nuraery, 


16a 

37! 


526 


INDEX. 


O. 


Oak, 

Page  172 

Onion,                           Page  174 

Oats, 

173 

Orchard,                                    1 76 

Olive, 

174 

Overflowing  of  the  Gall,          178 

P. 


Painting  of  Buildings, 

179 

Plough  and  Ploughing, 

185 

Parsnip, 

ib. 

Plum- Trees, 

187 

Pasture, 

180 

Poll-Evil, 

18» 

Pasture  of  Plants, 

182 

Ponds, 

ib. 

Peach-Tree, 

ib. 

Popi>y, 

ib. 

Pear- Tree, 

184 

Potatoe, 

180 

Pea, 

ib. 

Poultry, 

198 

Perry, 

185 

Pyrites, 

195 

Q. 


Quiuce-Tree, 


196 


R. 


Radish, 

106 

Rye, 

19b 

Ked-Top, 

197 

Rabbits. 

201 

rtoller  and  Rolling, 

ib. 

Rats, 

292 

Roots, 

ib. 

Reed, 

ib. 

Rotation, 

198 

Ridgling, 

203 

Ruunet,  or  Rennet. 

ib. 

&. 

Salt, 

204 

Soiling  of  Cattle, 

232 

Salts. 

ib. 

Soot, 

238 

Salting  of  Meat. 

•205 

Sowing, 

•239 

Sand, 

206 

Spavin, 

240 

Saf, 

ib. 

Spaying, 

241 

S<rratche?, 

ib. 

Spelt, 

ib. 

Sea- Water, 

ib. 

Spiky  Roller, 

ib. 

Seedy, 

.:08 

Spinage, 

ib. 

Sheep, 

ib. 

Sprouts, 

ib. 

Silk-WorniF 

226 

Spur, 

242 

Slips, 

380 

Stable  and  Stalls, 

ib. 

Smut, 

231 

Staggers, 

243 

Snow 

"2.32 

Stale, 

ib. 

INDEX. 


327 


stock. 

Stones, 

Stocking  or  Shocking, 

Strain  or  Sprain, 

Strawberry, 

Stubble, 


Tail-Sickness, 

Tall  Oat  Grass, 

Tall  Meadow  Oats, 

Teams, 

Thistle, 

Thorn, 

Threshing, 

Tillage, 

Timber, 

Timothy-Grass, 


Page  243 
243 
246 
ib. 
247 
248 


Clears, 


Vegetable  Oyster, 

Ventilator, 

Verjuice, 


Sunflower, 

Surfeit, 

Sward, 

Swarth-Rake, 

Swine, 

Sycamore, 


T. 

259     Tobacco, 
ib.     Top- Dressings, 
ib      Transplanting, 
ib.  1  Trefoil, 

263  Trench-Ploughing, 
ib.     'i'uvjiors, 

ib.     Turf  and  Peat, 

264  Turnip, 

266  I  Turnip-Cabbage, 
ib.  f 

275  1  Urine, 


Page  248 

ib. 

250 

251 

ib, 

25? 


266 
267 
20S 

ib. 

ib. 
260 
270 
2T1 


V. 


277 
ib. 
ib. 


Vetch, 

Vine  and  Vineyard, 

Vives, 


2'^ 


27? 
27S 
284 


w. 


Waggon, 

Walls, 

Walnut-Trees, 

Warming  Rooms, 

Water, 

Weather, 

Weeds, 

Weevil, 

Well, 

Wheat, 


Te«»t 


28  & 
ib. 

"Wheezing, 

White  Weed, 

286 

Willow, 

287 
289 
292 

Windgalls, 

Wind-Machinery 

Wine, 

£93 

Wolves, 

296 

Wood-House, 

U. 

Worms, 

ib. 

Wounds, 

Y. 

G12 

Yellows, 

301 

ib, 

ib. 

302 

303 

304 

309 

310 

ib. 

ib. 


313 


KRRATA. 

Page  12,  9tli  line  from  top,  for  "  caiiW'  read  neat-caUU. — Page  50,  12th  Ude  from  top. 
far  "  has  already  bten,''  read  s/udl  htreafUr  bt  further.— Pa.ze  85,  4th  liop  from  top,  for 
"grtmrul,"  read  gran — aivi  in  the  same  page,  13th  line  from  top  lor  "  Htdy  Sarxun,'' 
read  Hedisarum.—P^ge  101,  9th  line  from  bottom,  for  "  Tifrr  husbandry.^'  re aA  so.Unsnf 
eatUe.—Pa^e  157,  3d  line  from  top,  for  "  jarr,"  read  rorr.— Page  185.  next  line  f^  bottom, 
for  '•  nAo/€,"  read  nA^e/.— Page  209,  6th  line  from  top,  for  "  mon^u  musmou."  read 
tnmfloTt  musmon. — Page  219,  last  line  at  bottom,  for  "  cattle,'^  read  neat  cattle — Page 
241.  8tli  line  from  top,  for  "  cons,'''  read  sans. — Page  283,  I'rst  line  on  top,  for  "  ivarm,'' 
read  cold,  and  strike  out  the  word?,  "  ffnd  a&orc."— Page  291,  lltb  line  from  top,  striit. 
«»Bttlieword"^ft." 


SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


A. 

Asa  Aldrich, 
James  M'Alpen, 
Eli  Angevine, 
Abraham  Adriance, 
David  S.  Arnold, 
Isaac  R.  Adriance, 
William  Allen, 
Isaac  I.  Adriance, 
Alanson  Austin, 
Elii>halet  Ackerman, 
Casper  Ackerman, 
David  R.  Arnold, 
Christopher  Abeel, 
Moses  Armstrong, 
William  M'AuIey. 

B. 

D.  H.  Birtch, 
Weston  Brockway, 
John  I.  Barton, 
Enoch  Benedict, 
Hosea  Beebe, 
Dr.  Thomas  Broadhead, 
Peter  Van  Benthuysen, 
Peter  Brown, 
John  Z.  Bartlett, 
Leonard  Barton, 
Samuel  Boyd, 
Joel  Benton, 
Moor  Bird, 
Thomas  Bartow, 
Joseph  Baldwin, 
John  Beadle, 
David  Brown, 
Joshua  Barnes, 
Jonathan  Bloom, 
Tunis  Brinkerhoff, 
Derick  A.  BriQcl(;erhoo£r, 


42 


William  Broom, 

Nehemiah  Brown, 

William  Burling, 

John  Bonnett, 

B.  I.  Bartow, 

Robert  Brown, 

Charles  Brown, 

Jacob  Ten  Broeck, 

John  Babcock,  Jua. 

Charles  Baker, 

Seth  C.  Baldwin, 

Isaac  Barber, 

James  Barkley, 

Albertus  Becker, 

Peter  Becker, 

Storm  A.  Becker, 

John  Becker, 

John  P.  Bellinger, 

AVilliam  Bedell, 

Samuel  Bennet, 

Benjamin  Belknap, 

Hermanus  Bouck, 

Joseph  Bouck, 

Richard  C.  Broadhead, 

Rufus  Briggs, 

James  Brisbin,  Jun. 

Salmon  Britain, 

Cornelius  Bruyn, 

Joshua  Boyd, 

Thos.  L.  &  John  I.  Brooke, 

Daniel  Bull, 

Matthew  Bullock, 

John  Burhans, 

David  Burhans, 

H.  Burhans,  Juo. 

Andrew  Brown, 

Jesse  W.  Baf!ett, 

George  Brownell, 

Samuel  Bowen, 

T.  Romeyn  Beck, 


332 


SITBSCRIBER'S  NAMES. 


Ebenerer  Haieht, 
Ste|)hea  Hitchcock, 
Thomas  Hitchcock, 
George  W.  Healy^ 
Luther  Holley, 
Keuhen  Hanlia, 
Philip  Hart, 
Benry  Hall, 
Jonathan  Haieht, 
Jamee  G.  Hu^ted, 
Isaac  HuDtiog, 
John  C.  Havens, 
Martin  Heermance, 
Enoch  C.  Ham, 
Zachariah  HofTman, 
Peter  Hysen, 
"Warren  Hurlbut, 
Kathan  Halsey, 
I-  Hoag, 
iiewis  Hemck, 
J.  T.  Haight. 
Joseph  Horsfield, 
Andrew  Hogenbach, 
A.  Hammond, 
Stephen  Hainee, 
Thaddeii3  Hait, 
Enoch  Haskins, 
John  Haswell, 
Cornelius  B.  Hasbrouck, 
Nathaniel  P.  Hill, 
Elisha  Hoag, 
James  Hardenburgh, 
Hahner  Houghtaling, 
Conradt  I.  Houghtaling, 
Thomas  C.  Houghtaling, 
Barent  Heughtaliog, 
Thomas  Holiday, 
Ebenezer  Hurd, 
E.  C.  Hichcox, 
"William  Hotcbkiss, 
"Warren  Hecox, 
Joseph  I.  Houston, 

I. 

Hector  M'lntosh, 
Jo^f^'ih  I  VPS, 
Archibald  M'Intyre, 


George  Ingraham, 
Thomas  Ingraham, 

J. 

Daniel  St.  John, 
Daniel  Johnston, 
Samuel  Jarvis, 
Samuel  Jarvis,  Junior, 
Joseph  S.  Jackson, 
R,  James, 
Thomas  H.  Jansen, 
Charles  Jay, 
Samuel  Jackson, 
Thomas  Jervice, 
Elishamer  Jones, 
Thomas  Jones, 
Milliam  Jones, 
Michael  A.  Jones, 
William  Judson, 
Gideon  Johnson. 
Daniel  Jessup, 
Richard  Jennings,  JuD. 
Jesse  Jayne, 
Thos.  Jackson, 

K. 

Saranel  Koon, 
John  Kline, 
Abraham  Knapp, 
Amos  Knapp, 
Roswell  Kinnell, 
Isaac  A.  Kneads, 
James  Kennedy, 
Francis  C.  Kampmau, 
Newcomb  Knapp, 
Aaron  Kellogg, 
Herman  Khnichbocker, 
E|>enetus  Ketchum, 
Benjamin  Van  BeureOa 
William  M'KowD, 
Andrew  King, 
Philip  Knapp. 

L. 

Walter  I.  Livingston, 
H.  Livingston, 
Peter  Laince, 


SUBSCRIBER'S  NAMES. 


333 


Edward  P.  Livingston, 
Robert  L.  Livingston, 
Peter  Lewis, 
James  D.  Livingston, 
Henry  B.  Livingston, 
Francis  Livingston, 
Jacob  Lorillaril, 
Robert  S.  Livingston, 
Henry  Lyle, 
Edward  Per  Lee, 
Martin  Lawrence, 
Ashbel  Landon, 
Eber  Leet, 
Wright  Lattin, 
Henry  Liviugston, 
Henry  A.  Livingston, 
William  Lattimorei 
Daniel  Levan, 
Ezra  Lester, 
Gerrit  Lansing, 
Joseph  Lamb, 
Isaac  Lacy, 
Ziiia  Lay, 
Daniel  Lawrence, 
William  &  Samuel  Legg, 
Cornelius  Legg, 
Josepn  Levens, 
R.  3L  Livingston, 
Nicholas  Libolt, 
Peter  R.  Ludlow, 
John  V.  W.  Luke, 
John  Lydle, 

M. 

John  J.  Miller, 
Deter  Merrick, 
Bernard  Mathewson, 
Matthias  B.  Miller, 
Abraham  Merritt,  Jun. 
Pardon  Mason, 
Daniel  Mason, 
Preston  Mygatt, 
Joseph  Mead, 
Edward  Merritt, 
Oliver  Matthews, 
John  Maynard, 
Gov'.  Morris, 
Thomas  H.  Mercy, 


Nicholas  De  Myer, 
Arthur  E.  Mulpollon, 
William  P.  Morrison, 
Peter  W.  Man, 
Peter  Man, 
Robert  jMartin, 
James  Martin, 
Samuel  Marvin, 
Josiah  Masters, 
Job  G.  Masher, 
Bethuel  Mather, 
Henry  L.  Meed, 
Joseph  Merritt, 
Daniel  Miller, 
Johannes  Miller, 
Simon  Miller, 
John  L  Moak, 
Hezekiah  Moffett, 
Hiel  Morris, 
Ebenezer  Munger, 
James  Murphy, 
Barent  MyudersoD, 
lo.  Miller, 

N.    ■ 

fJacob  Van  Ness, 
William  Northup, 
Henrj^  Nye, 
John  Newcorab, 
Robert  New  by, 
Robert  Newlin, 
Nicholas  Neligh, 
Henry  Newkirk, 

Henry  Overing, 
John  Osborn, 
Peter  R.  Osteroo, 
James  Odell, 
James  Oliver, 
J.  Van  Orden, 
Peter  Overbagh, 

P. 

Peleg  Peckham, 
John  P.  Philips, 


334 


SUBSCRIBER'S  NAMES. 


Philip  Pitcher, 
Abiah  Palmer, 
Elijah  B.  Park, 
tsath.  Pendleton, 
Samuel  Plumb, 
A.  h.  Prevost, 
Daniel  Pelion, 
Henry  S.  Peufield, 
William  1.  Prevost, 
Samuel  Pine, 
Kehemiah  Purdy, 
William  Popham, 
Beojamiu  Price, 
Peter  Power, 
Abijah  Palmer, 
Stephen  Palmer, 
Patrick  Parkes, 
Stephen  Parsons,  Jan. 
Abraham  W.  Payne, 
Joshua  L.  Pinny, 
John  Phimer, 
Ezra  Preston, 
John  Preston, 
Thomas  Powell, 
Geo.  Philips, 

R. 

Timothy  Rogers, 
James  Rowley, 
Simon  Rockfeller, 
George  Rhoads, 
H.W.  Rockfeller, 
Henry  Rockfeller, 
Frederick  Rockfeller, 
Peter  A.  Ring, 
John  G.  Ring, 
Elijah  Reed, 
John  Rouse, 
Abraham  R.  Rapalye, 
John  C.  RadcliCr, 
Isaac  F.  Roe, 
Isaac  Russell, 
Robert  Ross, 
Darid  Rogers, 
I.  RalstoB, 
Owen  Dice, 
Philetu?  Reyuolde, 
Henry  Van  Rensselaer, 
Justus  Rathbone, 
Abraham  Randall; 


William  Ray, 

Eliakim  Reed, 

Roswell  heed, 

Seth  Reeves, 

Stephen  Van  Rensselaer, 

Solomon  Van  Ren;selaer, 

Comtlius  Van  Rensselaer, 

P.  S.  Van  Rensselaer, 

Schuyler  Van  Rensselaer, 

James  Van  Rensselaer. 

George  Richmond, 

Aldert  Hooea, 

A.  Rogers, 

William  Ross, 

Thomas  Rushmore, 

Reuben  Rundell, 

K.  K.  Van  Rensselaer, 

Peter  Van  Rensaelaer, 

Saundf^rs  Van  Rensselaer, 

Nathauiel  Roe, 

s. 

Seymour  Smith, 
Peter  Sharp, 
Nicholas  Shultz, 
Jacob  Shultz, 
Henry  Shop, 
Horatio  G.  Spafiford, 
Philip  P.  Schuyler, 
James  Stewart, 
Willinm  Stevenson, 
Caleb  Sands, 
Lemuel  Session, 
Isaac  Smith, 
Wareham  Shelden, 
James  R.  Smith, 
INIartin  Strong, 
Hon.  John  Cotton  Smith. 
Cyrus  Swan, 
Storges  San«lford, 
Thomas  Swift, 
Seth  Swift, 
Samuel  Stevens, 
Henry  Swift, 
James  Sleght, 
William  Sowle, 
Abraham  Sl'trht, 
William  Seward, 
Thomas  G.  Storm, 


SUBSCRIBER'S  NAMES. 


335 


Eben€zer  Sherman, 
Andrew  Stockholm, 
Clark  8an(itord, 
Jacob  Summers, 
Ei>hraim'Smith, 
David  Sutherland, 
G.  W.  Van  Schaick, 
Anthony  Van  Schaick, 
John  Van  Schaick, 
Jacob  I.  Schermerhorn, 
Tjerck  Schoonmaker, 
Phillip  Schuyler, 
Benjamin  Sears, 
Gabriel  Seely, 
William  Seymour, 
William  Sherer, 
William  N.  Sill, 
John  D.  Shafer, 
David  Skinner, 
Abraham  Shear, 
Storm  Slingerland, 
Thomas  Smith, 
Moses  Smith, 
Stoddard  Smith, 
Samuel  Smith, 
Isaac  Smith, 
John  Smith, 
Isaiah  Smith,  Jun. 
Benjamin  Smith, 
Anna  Smith, 
Juliet  Smith, 
Henry  Seely, 
Peter  Snyder, 
Peter  Spawn, 
Frederick  Spawn, 
William  S.  Springsteed, 
Spencer  Stafford, 
Asa  Starkweather, 
Archibald  Stephens, 
Samuel  Strong, 
Dut}^  Sayles, 
Ethan  vSweet, 
John  Swartwout, 
William  Stevenson, 
Joseph  Stewart, 
Nathl.  Sands, 
Samuel  Sands  Seymour, 
Samuel  S.  Seward, 
Joseph  Sharp, 


Walter  B.  Strong, 
Thomas  SproulU 

T. 

William  Thomas, 
Thomas  Tillotson, 
Dyer  Throop, 
John  Turner, 
Joseph  Thompson, 
Egbert  Thom{)Son, 
Stephen  Thorn, 
Alfred  Tardway, 
William  A.  i'ayior, 
Joseph  Thorn, 
William  Thorn,  Junior, 
I^icholas  Thorn, 
Samuel  Thorn, 
Daniel  Townsend, 
Isaac  Teller, 
Richard  Teller, 
Thomas  Thomas, 
Enoch  Tompkins, 
Allen  Thompson, 
Henry  Townsend, 
William  Van  Tuyle, 
Robert  Taylor, 
Willet  Titus, 
Otto  William  Van  Tuyle, 
John  «fe  Ziba  Taylor, 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  2 
Phinehas  Tompkins, 
William  Thomi»son. 

y. 

Moses  Vail, 
Solomon  Vail, 
John  B.  Vanfradenburgb, 
George  D.  Vail, 
Gideon  Van  Valen, 
Henry  Vanderburgh, 
Gabriel  Vanderburgh, 
Daniel  C.  Verplank, 
William  Vankirk, 
S.  Visscher, 
Simon  Viele, 
Stephen  Valentine, 
Peter  Vroman, 
Bareut  A.  Vroman. 


336 


SUBSCRIBER'S  NAMES. 


U. 

Joshua  Underbill, 
Bishop  Underhill, 
Richard  Underhill, 

w. 

Ellhu  Williams, 
Jacob  Wood, 
Bacton  White, 
Jacob  G.  Van  Wyck, 
John  G.  Wilde, 
Richard  Whitby, 
R.  r.  Van  Wyck, 
A.  WheelerlK)de, 
John  WooUey, 
Robert  Woolley, 
Amaziah  Winchester, 
Thomas  Wright, 
Martin  E.  Winchell, 
Philo  M.  Wiuchell, 
Peter  W  ootlan, 
Silas  Wodell, 
John  Wight  man  J 
Jeptha  Wilber, 
R.  Westerlow, 
Daniel  Wagener, 
Hugh  Willson, 
Philip  Wolf, 
John  Weaver, 
Joseph  Wadsnorth, 
Thomas  Waiue, 
Anthony  W  aine, 
Ino.  H.  Walsh, 
John  Wands, 
James  Wanda, 
Robert  Wande, 


Ichabod  Wilber, 
G.  P.  Van  Wie, 
Thomas  Wit  beck, 
Gerrit  U  eodell, 
Tjerck  De  Witt, 
Absalom  Weller, 
Daniel  Wilson, 
James  W.  Wilkin, 
Henry  G.  Wisner, 
G.  D.  Wickham, 
William  Williamson, 
Jesse  Wood, 
Fletcher  Woodhull, 
I.  C.  Van  Wyck, 
Frederick  Word, 
Elijah  Welch, 
NalM.  H.  White, 
James  Wood, 
Richard  Welling, 
B.  Woodward, 
D.  M.  Westeoat, 
James  Wheeler, 
John  Wood, 
William  F.  Wheeler, 
Geo.  Wood. 

Y. 

John  W.  Yates, 
John  V.  N.  Yates, 
Abijah  Yelverton, 
Abimel  Young, 
Silas  Young. 

z. 

John  Zirmlliger 


ADDITIONAL  SUBSCRIBERS. 


MASSACHUSETTS, 
Pittsfield. 

Phineas  Allen, 
David  Ashiej, 
James  B.  Brown, 
Simeon  Brown, 
Thomas  Burt, 
Warriiier  Sc  Cailender, 
Samuel  D.  Colt, 
Richard  E.  Colt, 
William  Cadweil, 
John  Dickinson, 
Oliver  P.  Di,ckinson, 
Eldad  Francis, 
William  Francis, 
Wells  Fowler, 
Oren  "Goodrich,  ^ 

Thomas  Gold, 
Thomas  Melville, 
Joseph  Merrick, 
Moses  >Ierritt,   "  ^-^-^^^ 
Oliver  Bobbins, 
John  B.  Root, 
Oliver  Root, 
Daniel  Stearna, 
Joel  Stevens, 
Jesse  Sahin, 
Caleb  Wadham, 
Elkanah  Watson. 

Lenox. 

Ezra  Blossom, 
Caleb  Hyde, 
Elijah  Northrup, 
^^illiam  walker. 

Stockbridge. 

Samuel  Andrews, 
John  Baron, 
Isaac  Curds, 
Danie!  Fairchild, 
John  Hunt, 
Thad*.  Pomeror. 


4.'i 


Joab  Plirmb, 
Sewell  Sergeant, 
Joseph  Woodbridge, 
Solomon  WiHjan, 
SolomoD  ^V^hiftlesey, 
Seth  Wiliian. 

JVest  Sprins:jiel(I. 

David  Marley. 

Lancsboroug^. 

Ebenezer  Buck, 
James  Barker,  Jan. 
Elijah  Easten, 
Calvin  Hubbell, 
Caman  &  Pettibone, 
Henry  Shaw, 
Samuel  Terril,  Jun. 
Samuel  H.  Wheeler. 

Cheshire^ 

Daniel  Brown, 
Wells  &  Pisk. 

AJa?ns. 

VVells  &  Howland, 
Jo?iah  Q.  Robinson, 
Henry  Willmotb, 
Elisha  Wells. 

Jniliamstorvn 

Samuel  Kellogg, 
Diodatus  Noble, 
Samuel  Porter, 
Douglass  W.  Sloane. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Great-Barrington 
George  Beckwitb, 
William  Stevens. 

Sheffiell 

Horace  Bush, 
Consider  Morgan. 


SUBSCRIBERS'  NA:MES. 


Canaan, 

John  Adam. 
"Billa  Buckley, 
William  M.  Burrall, 
RusseJl  Hunt. 

ComnalL 

John  A-  Sedgwick. 

Liichfuld. 

Samuel  Buel, 
Lucius  Smith, 
Frederick  Wolcott 

BdhUhem. 

Billy  Ambler. 

JVatertonm. 

Parid  Buckinjham, 
John  Buckingham, 
Samuel  Elton, 
Charles  Meriman, 
Willitim  1,  Punder50n, 
Garrit  Smith, 
Wells  StoddartL 

Walcrhicry. 

Joseph  BurtoD» 
James  Scoril, 
Zeuas  Cook, 


Cyrus  Clark, 

John  Kineshury, 
William  K.  Lamson- 

Che  shirr. 

John  Beach, 
S.  A.  Foot, 
Andrew  Hull. 
An(trew  HdII,  Jua 
Rufus  Hitchcock, 
Stephen  Ives. 

HaAfoTd. 

Joseph  Pratt,  Jun. 

VERMONT. 

Bcnmnston. 

Eaweri  &  tlul)hell, 
Anthony  Haswell, 
Isaac  Ticiieoor. 

Shaftshury. 

Jesse  Blackmer, 
Ebenezer  Clark, 
Samuel  Cross, 
Russell  Loo  mis, 
Thomas  Matteson. 

Porvnal. 

ZaccheuB  fioref. 


^^     *.,<■-.•. 


